Palaces in Tibet: A Journey Through Architectural Magnificence

Tibet, a land of spiritual and natural wonder, is also home to some of the most awe-inspiring palaces in the world, known as “Potala” in Tibetan. These palaces, significant components of Tibet’s ancient architecture, symbolize power through different historical eras.

The Evolution of Tibetan Palaces

From the construction of Tibet’s first palace, Yumbu Lhakang, during the Yarlung tribe era to the iconic Potala Palace built by King Songtsen Gampo on Red Hill in Lhasa, Tibetan palace architecture has a rich history spanning over two thousand years. Despite challenges such as natural disasters and political upheaval, these structures have stood as testaments to Tibet’s enduring spirit and architectural ingenuity.

Origins of Palace Construction

The origins of Tibetan palaces trace back to ancient times, where legends tell of a society formed from the union of a monkey (regarded as a divine being) and a demons, leading to the birth of the human race and eventually, the emergence of significant tribes and confederations. This mythical beginning set the stage for the rise of Tibet’s first king, Nyatri Tsenpo, who established the foundation of what would become a series of magnificent palaces reflecting the societal and political advancements of the time.

The Rise of Fortresses and Small States

The advent of small states marked a pivotal moment in Tibetan architecture, introducing fortresses (or “Dzongs”) that influenced traditional building styles. These fortresses, initially designed for military defense, eventually became integral to the fabric of Tibetan society, dotting the landscape and serving as the nucleus around which communities developed.

Around the 2nd century BCE, the Yarlung tribe emerged as a prominent force, leading to the construction of Yungbulakang Palace. This historic edifice, located near the Yarlung River, signifies the dawn of palace architecture in Tibet, heralding the beginning of an era that would see the creation of numerous palaces, each with its unique story and significance.

The Potala Palace: A Symbol of Unity

The Potala Palace, perhaps the most famous of all Tibetan palaces, was initially built by King Songtsen Gampo. It underwent significant transformations, especially during the reign of the Fifth Dalai Lama, who utilized the palace as a political and spiritual center, integrating governance with Buddhism. Despite facing destruction and periods of decline, the Potala Palace was meticulously restored and expanded by successive Dalai Lamas, culminating in the magnificent structure that draws visitors from around the globe today.

A Legacy of Architectural Splendor

Tibet’s palaces, from the ancient Yungbulakang to the majestic Potala and beyond, represent more than just architectural achievements; they are symbols of Tibet’s rich cultural heritage, spiritual beliefs, and the resilience of its people. These palaces stand as serene guardians of history, inviting the world to explore their corridors and learn the stories etched into their walls.

Through centuries of development, destruction, and restoration, the palaces of Tibet continue to fascinate and inspire, embodying the spirit of a land where architecture and spirituality intertwine seamlessly.

The Dawn of Tibetan Palace Architecture: Yungbulakang Palace

Yungbulakang Palace stands as a monumental edifice, marking the era of fortresses during the time of small states in Tibet. It not only inherited the functional aspects and characteristics of fortresses from that period but also played a pivotal role in the evolution of Tibetan Dzong-style architecture. Amidst the conflict-ridden era of small states, the Yarlung tribe emerged as the most formidable by annexing and defeating other tribes. To meet the demands of warfare and defend against hostile states, they constructed the fortress-like Yungbulakang Palace on a hilltop, adapting to the needs of war while also serving as the political and territorial heart of their domain.

Early Tibetan Architectural Art: The Karo Ruins

The Karo ruins offer insights into the primitive architectural art of Tibet. Large post holes indicate the widespread use of columns in ancient Tibetan architecture to support roofs and enhance load-bearing capacity. Slate, abundant in the Tibetan region, became the natural material of choice for wall construction, defining the basic characteristics of Tibetan architecture: columnar structures, flat roofs, and thick stone walls.

Palatial Evolution in Tibet

The Formative Period

From the 2nd century BCE to the 7th century CE, Tibet entered its formative period of palace architecture, coinciding with the rise and zenith of the Tubo (Tibetan Empire). The first palace, Yungbulakang, was built by Nyatri Tsenpo, the first king of the Yarlung tribe, around 127 BCE in what is now Nêdong County in the Shannan region. This period marked the construction of numerous palaces by successive kings, such as the Komayangzhi Palace, Gular Guche Palace, Sopu Qiongla Palace, and others, culminating in the “Chingwa Six Palaces” in the Qonggyai County by the kings from Budegongjian to Isho Lek.

These palaces, due to historical reasons, have mostly vanished, leaving Yungbulakang as the sole palace rebuilt in the 1980s to its original form. The designs and scales of the other palaces remain a mystery, awaiting future archaeological efforts to uncover their true essence.

Significance of Palaces in Tibetan Culture

These palaces, beyond their architectural marvel, served as the political and military hubs of their respective tribes, embodying the early Tibetan inclination towards natural worship and the celestial ladder concept. They reflect a historical backdrop of frequent wars and prolonged fragmentation, providing a crucial precondition for the emergence of palatial architecture in Tibet and influencing its architectural development for generations to come.

The Formation Period of Tibetan Palace Architecture (7th to 13th Century)

During the 7th to 13th centuries, the Tubo (Tibetan Empire) dynasty went through stages of prosperity, decline, and division, marking Tibet’s entry into a feudal serfdom society. This era signifies the formation period of palace architecture.

Tubo Dynasty Era

Under the leadership of the 33rd king, Songtsen Gampo, who moved the capital to Lhasa and established the Tubo dynasty, a palace was constructed on the top of Marpo Ri Hill (where the Potala Palace now stands), on the site of his ancestors’ footsteps. According to the “Records of the Tibetan Kings and Ministers,” a vast fortress was built, featuring a foundation laid in a year of the Fire-Sheep, with walls thirty spans high, spanning over a mile on each side, housing nine hundred red palaces, totaling a thousand rooms. The grandeur and artistic achievement of this construction far surpassed that of Yungbulakang from the tribal era, though later destroyed by lightning, leaving only the Phakpa Lhakhang (Chapel).

Subsequent generations, according to Dunhuang Tibetan historical documents, saw the construction of various palaces across Tibet by Songtsen Gampo’s descendants, such as “Migyer” and “Zhangkar,” both palace and place names, reflecting the locations of royal encampments. Other sources mention palaces like Dengkar Wangkhang and Wu Xiangduo Palace, serving as alternate residences for the kings, embodying the essence of architectural culture at the time. These palaces, central to political activities and royal life, no longer exist today, with their specific designs and scales largely unknown.

This period marked the pinnacle of architectural sophistication in Tibet, with palaces not just as administrative centers but also as residences for the royal family and sites for gathering ministers and tribal leaders. Despite the loss of these historical structures, the documentation and legends surrounding them highlight the rich architectural heritage and the significant role of palaces in Tibet’s feudal society.

The Division Era of the Tubo Dynasty

After the collapse of the Tubo dynasty, the descendants of the royal lineage split into two branches: one led by Jidé Nimagon and the other by Tsewang Rabten. The Jidé Nimagon branch fled to Ngari and constructed the Zitogajay Palace in the “Lhawo” region. Their descendants, notably the King of Guge, later built the Guge Kingdom in present-day Zanda County, Ngari, with the royal palace constructed at the top of the fortress-like structure.

The Tsewang Rabten branch moved to the Tsang region, establishing a smaller kingdom and constructing the Gongtang Wangcheng in present-day Gyirong County, Shigatse. This palace, known as “Tashi Chödzong,” incorporated both administrative functions and served as the royal residence, with religious activities becoming an integral part of its purpose, differing from the Tubo period. For instance, the ruins of the ancient Guge Kingdom indicate that, besides buildings for administrative affairs and royal living quarters, there were also Buddhist sites, signifying the still predominantly secular role of the king, with religious centers located elsewhere, such as in Tholing Monastery.

The Maturity Period

From the 13th century, when the Yuan dynasty unified Tibet, to the early 20th century during the 13th Dalai Lama’s time, Tibetan palace architecture entered its maturity period. The Yuan dynasty’s unification led to the establishment of politically and religiously unified local governments like the Sakya regime. Later, with support from the Ming and Qing central governments, the Phagmodrupa and Ganden Phodrang governments were established.

These governments constructed residences and administrative centers, referred to in Tibetan as “Pozhang,” meaning palaces. A key feature of the theocratic system was the intertwining of religious and political rule, strengthening political governance through religious authority, necessitating a close relationship between the political headquarters and religious centers, often co-located within monasteries.

For example, the Sakya sect’s founder, Khön Könchog Gyalpo, built the Sakya Monastery in the Zhongqu River valley of Sakya County, establishing a religious sect that combined the roles of secular leader and spiritual master within the monastery. The Sakya Monastery, expanding over time, became the center for both the family’s political and religious activities. When the Sakya sect aligned with the Yuan dynasty, Tibet was incorporated into the central government’s administration, further solidifying Sakya’s political and religious significance.

By the 15th century, with the establishment of the Gelug sect by Tsongkhapa and its subsequent growth, leading to the construction of monastic centers like Ganden, Drepung, and Sera, the Gelug sect’s influence expanded. The construction of Ganden Podrang in Drepung Monastery, for example, marked a significant development in Tibetan palace architecture, blending religious and secular functions within a single complex.

This period saw the blending of monastic and royal functions, with significant palaces like the Potala Palace serving both as a spiritual center and the Dalai Lama’s residence, epitomizing the culmination of Tibetan architectural development and heritage.

Section 2: Layout and Functionality

Choosing a Site for Palace Construction

Tibetan palace architecture typically favors hilltops within river valleys, offering a strategic defensive advantage. For instance, the Yungbulakang Palace is situated atop Tashi Tsere Hill in the Yarlung Valley of southern Tibet, an exceptionally strategic location (Image 3-2-1).

The southeast side features steep cliffs, while the northern slope is gentler, accessible only by a horse trail winding up from the north. The ancient Guge Kingdom’s ruins are perched on a north-south-oriented hill, flanked by two mountains on its southern bank, with the royal palace located on the summit plateau. The Gongtang Wang Palace, built around the 11th century, was constructed at the foot of a mountain resembling a giant curtain, surrounded by walls and moats for defense. Nêdong Official Residence sits on a horseshoe-shaped hill along the Yarlung River, easily defensible and overlooking the expansive valley.

Beyond tactical considerations, religious and sentimental factors also play a role in site selection. For instance, the construction of the Potala Palace was influenced by religious significance, as recorded in “The Records of Tibetan Kings”: Songtsen Gampo contemplated the best location for his spiritual practice and decided on Red Hill in Lhasa, following in the footsteps of his ancestor, Lhatototori Nyentsen, believed to be an incarnation of Samantabhadra.

Palace Architecture Layout

Palace architecture often employs a free-style layout adapted to mountainous terrain, with larger complexes typically comprising a palace area at the summit, a village at the base, and a summer palace in a nearby verdant area (Images 3-2-2, 3-2-3).

The palace area usually consists of the main palace building, temples, and auxiliary structures such as storehouses, stables, and workshops, arranged around one or more courtyards. Some courtyards are spacious, serving as squares for outdoor activities within the palace, especially during festivals and significant religious events. Principal buildings like the palace and temples usually enjoy prime positions, facing south. Defensive walls often surround the architectural complex, with hidden passages sometimes leading down the mountain.

For example, the Ragya Ri Wang Palace in southern Tibet (Images 3-2-4, 3-2-5) is located on a high plateau above the Seky River valley, comprising old and new palace sections, with the summer palace located on the lowland riverbank to the north. The new palace section includes Ganden Lhagyari (the royal palace), temples, storehouses, workshops, and stables arranged around a central square, all enclosed by high walls, making it easily defensible. The courtyard, surrounded by the palace, temples, and auxiliary buildings, measures approximately 80 meters east to west and 40 meters north to south. The square is decorated with blue and white stones arranged in religious motifs, enhancing the spiritual atmosphere.

The Snow Village is positioned at the foot of the mountain, where various ancillary buildings are assembled in a free-form arrangement according to the terrain. For instance, the Potala Palace’s Snow Town is constructed on the flat land in front of the mountain. It encompasses several administrative buildings such as the Tibetan Military Command, the Potala Palace’s direct county and lower district offices, granaries, prisons, and scripture printing houses. It also includes residences for monks, secular officials, and staff houses, among other service buildings. The spatial relationship between these buildings is not rigorously planned.

At the base of the mountain or in a slightly distant area rich in trees, the Summer Palace is set up, serving as a place for rest, recreation, and enjoying the Lingka (gardens). The Potala Palace’s Summer Palace, Norbulingka, is located approximately 1.5 kilometers southwest of the Potala Palace. The Ragya Ri Wang Palace’s Summer Palace is situated on the flat ground of the valley north beneath the palace cliffs, covering an area of 500 meters in length and 300 meters in width. The original structures included palace walls, bathing pools, and palaces, most of which no longer exist, leaving only a small palace courtyard. The main building of the Summer Palace measures 18 meters in width from east to west and 20 meters in depth from north to south, presenting a courtyard-style palace that integrates Tibetan and Han architectural styles. Generally facing south, the main house is located on the north side with a small courtyard in the center, surrounded by rooms accessible via stone steps on the north, east, and west sides.

Moreover, regarding the palaces within monasteries, the relationship between the palace and the monastery is viewed as between an individual and the whole, interconnected yet relatively independent. Although the Sanye South Monastery and Ganden Podrang are incorporated into the overall structures of Sanye Monastery and Drepung Monastery, they remain independent entities themselves. For example, the Ganden Podrang architectural complex at the southwest corner of Drepung Monastery is arranged from south to north along roads and streams, adapting to the mountain terrain with front, middle, and rear courtyards, plus a western side courtyard. The main palace building is centrally located in the middle courtyard, facing south, with four floors. The ground floor serves as a storeroom with doors opening to the courtyard, while the second and third floors contain administrative offices and halls for religious activities. The top floor is reserved for the Dalai Lama’s living quarters, with offices, staff rooms, and various storerooms arranged around the main building in the surrounding architecture. The overall plan is clearly defined, with courtyards logically laid out according to the mountainous terrain, integrating the main building with other constructions organically. This forms a grand and spectacular architectural complex that seamlessly blends into the entire monastery complex of Drepung.

Palace Architecture Functions

Palace buildings primarily serve for residence, governance, religious worship, and defense. From 695 AD, with Chisong Dezan, there’s documentation of Tsampo residing at Tzama, marking an important political center of the time. Chide Zuzan often stayed at the Wombu Garden in Tzama, meeting envoys from Tang Dynasty, Dashi (Arabia), Tujue (Turkic tribes), and Nanzhao. Princess Jincheng and Chide Zuzan also lived together in Tzama. Historical records show that from 700 AD, the royal mother, Chimale, stayed at Wenjiangduo Palace, gathering ministers for meetings. At that time, although Buddhism was supported and valued, it was utilized politically. For instance, during the Qingshui alliance between Tang Dynasty and Tubo in 783 AD, Tang’s envoy Zhang Yi and Tubo’s Great Minister Shang Jiezan swore oaths in a Buddhist tent, indicating the seriousness and importance of the alliance. Religious figures were involved in politics, but solely in service of political interests, symbolizing royal authority.

After the fall of the Tubo dynasty, feudal lords utilized religion extensively, adding religious activities to the palace architecture’s functions. With the development of the theocratic system, the religious function of palace architecture was continuously strengthened and perfected. From the early Guge Kingdom’s palace, which had only two Buddhist buildings for worship, to a unified palace-monastery architecture, such as Sanye South Monastery and Drepung Monastery’s Ganden Podrang, and finally, in the pinnacle of Tibetan palace architecture – the Potala Palace, which houses the Red Palace for numerous religious activities. The Red Palace serves as a memorial building and a center for political and religious activities, designed to accommodate diverse social needs with multi-functional, public, and strong political and religious attributes. The White Palace serves both political-religious purposes and personal use for the Dalai Lama, including halls, worship halls, offices of the Tibetan local government in the Potala Palace, and various service rooms.

Defensive Function

The defensive function of palace architecture is paramount for protecting the sovereignty and safety of its inhabitants. This includes strategic site selection on mountains, such as Yongbulakang on Tashi Tsere Mountain, Trandruk on Trandruk Mountain, and the Potala Palace on Red Hill. The terrain provides a natural barrier. Additionally, palace constructions usually include surrounding walls, like the Potala Palace’s Snow City encircled by a robust wall, serving as gateways. The complex and large-scale architecture of palaces, with intricate spaces, adds to their defensive capabilities.

Types and Characteristics

Palace architecture in Tibet showcases a variety of styles and features, reflecting the unique cultural, religious, and political landscape of the region. These buildings often incorporate defensive elements, religious significance, and serve as administrative centers, illustrating the blend of power, faith, and artistry characteristic of Tibetan culture.

Types of Palace Architecture

1. Residential Buildings

Residential buildings form a critical component of palace architecture, typically comprising bedrooms, kitchens, bathrooms, halls for royal gatherings, and guest rooms. These residential buildings are often located on the top floor of the main building in the palace complex. For instance, the residential structures of Lhagyari Palace are situated on the fifth floor of the central building, Ganden Phodrang. Ganden Phodrang consists of a five-story structure with east and west towers, where the fifth floor primarily serves the royal family’s living quarters, including bedrooms, kitchens, and bathrooms. The fourth floor houses halls for royal gatherings and viewing religious dances. Similarly, the living quarters within Ganden Podrang are located on the top floor of the main building in the second courtyard. The Dalai Lama’s sleeping quarters in the Potala Palace are located on the sixth floor of the White Palace.

2. Religious Buildings

Religious buildings include various halls (such as Buddha halls, mandala halls, stupa halls, and halls for housing sacred texts), scripture halls (ranging from large halls to smaller ones used exclusively by the royal family), and stupas. For example, the Ganjurlakang in Lhagyari Palace is a significant place of worship within the palace, consisting of a porch, scripture hall, and Buddha hall. The main scripture hall is 26 meters deep and 23 meters wide, originally supported by 68 columns. The Buddha hall, composed of two adjoining halls with a connecting doorway, is located at the southern end of the scripture hall. The construction technique of reducing columns in the central part of the scripture hall to form a courtyard, with shorter columns supporting high side windows and the roof, follows the Tibetan monastic tradition of integrating Buddha halls and scripture halls within a single building. The small scripture hall is situated on the fourth floor of Ganjurlakang, alongside a stupa hall for the deceased three generations of rulers of Southern Tibet, a meditation room for the ruler, a hall for storing the Kangyur texts, and a dragon deity hall, although the third and fourth floors have been destroyed.

The Buddha hall in the Gongtang ruins, “located in the middle of the Gongtang Palace ruins, originally a two-story structure with the upper level now collapsed, consists of an entrance, courtyard, and rear hall. The ruins feature an abundance of exquisite wood carvings, particularly around the columns of the courtyard and on the doorframes and beams of the rear hall.”

The Buddhist structure within the ruins of the Guge Palace, the mandala hall, stands as a separate building, “covering an area of about 25 square meters with walls 55 centimeters thick. The hall features a square platform for scriptures in the center, surrounded by brightly colored frescoes depicting heaven, the human world, and hell, with gods and bodhisattvas in heaven, attendants in the human world, and suffering beings and demons in hell. One fresco shows Vajrabhairava defeating a non-Buddhist deity, symbolizing the triumph over non-Buddhist religions.”

These examples illustrate the multifaceted nature of palace architecture in Tibet, encompassing both residential and religious functions, each with its distinctive layout and features, reflecting the rich cultural and spiritual heritage of the region.

Types and Features of Palace Architecture

1. Administrative Buildings

Palace architecture includes administrative structures such as conference halls, offices, and reception rooms. For example, in the Lhagyari Palace located in the Southern Tibet region, administrative buildings are primarily situated on the second floor of the Ganjurlakang.

In the case of the Guge Palace, the council hall is a separate structure covering approximately 400 square meters. The hall has three smaller rooms on both the east and south sides, leaving only ruins today.

2. Defense Structures

Defense structures include tunnels, bastions, walls, moats, watchtowers, and gates.

• Tunnels: Often used for emergency evacuations or accessing water during sieges. The Lhagyari Palace features a secret underground tunnel with two entrances: one beneath the wine cellar of the western building and another near the ancient Ruqutan Temple, approximately 300 meters west of the palace.
• Bastions: Observation points are constructed at strategic locations. The Potala Palace has existing bastions, including the West and North Round Bastions.
• Walls and Moats: For example, the Sakya South Monastery has two sets of walls. The inner wall, made of rammed earth, is steep and difficult to climb, enhancing its defensive capability. The outer wall, a lower wall used for horse grazing, serves as a simple defensive structure during wartime.

3. Auxiliary Buildings

These include storage rooms, workshops, stables, gardens, grain processing areas, mills, and barracks. For instance, the Lhagyari Palace has a storage area facing the front square for storing grains, butter, and horse feed collected as taxes.

Scale of Palace Architecture

Palace architecture is characterized by its grand scale and comprehensive facilities. The ancient Guge Palace, for example, sits atop a plateau with a distinctive ‘S’ shape, spanning roughly 210 meters in length and varying in width, covering an area of approximately 7150 square meters. The site includes remains of 56 rooms, 14 cave dwellings, 20 bastions, and four tunnels, with a total length of existing defensive walls around 430 meters.

Similarly, the Potala Palace encompasses over 400,000 square meters, divided into the palace fort complex on the mountain, the square city at the base, and the Longwangtan Garden behind the mountain. The palace complex itself stretches about 370 meters east to west, with its widest point being over 100 meters and standing 117.91 meters tall, offering a total built area of over 57,700 square meters. The palace’s architecture ingeniously utilizes the terrain and spatial arrangement to create a complex, multi-tiered structure incorporating various halls, temples, living quarters, stupas, monastic institutions, and monk quarters, presenting a maze of intricately connected buildings.

Styles of Palace Architecture

Integration with the Landscape: The Potala Palace

The Potala Palace, constructed on Marpo Ri (Red Hill) in Lhasa, Tibet, exemplifies the traditional Tibetan technique of hillside architecture. The structure is ingeniously integrated with the natural terrain, using large stones to extend the building into the hill, making the architecture and the hill indistinguishable. This seamless integration of the natural landscape into the architectural design makes the palace an extension of the mountain itself. The exterior walls are strategically designed to blend with the rugged terrain, with irregularities at the junctions where the building meets the hill, utilizing larger, roughly hewn stones to merge the man-made structure with the natural rock.

Central Role of the Red Palace

The Red Palace occupies a central and commanding position within the Potala Palace complex, standing out due to its height and mass. Its walls are painted red, contrasting with the surrounding white buildings, which emphasizes its significance and control over the entire palace complex. The Red Palace’s architecture is characterized by its balanced and strict composition, utilizing a central axis flanked by secondary axes to create a powerful focal point. This central axis highlights the Red Palace’s dominant role, clearly establishing a hierarchical order within the architectural ensemble. The detailing of the Red Palace, including the expansive use of gold ornaments on the roofs and the presence of golden tops and treasure banners, further accentuates its prominence, ensuring a harmonious balance and unity within the Potala Palace as a whole.

Evolution of Tibetan Palace Architecture

Palace architecture during the small tribal era was built into the mountains, adopting a fortress-like style with significant defensive features, exemplified by Yungbulakang Palace. As the Tibetan Empire flourished, local architectural styles evolved, enhancing the artistic expression of palaces, as noted in historical texts describing the original Potala Palace. With the establishment of the Sakya regime during the Yuan Dynasty, the first local government integrating political and religious powers in Tibet’s history, the “monastery within the palace, palace within the monastery” architectural form emerged, profoundly influencing later palace designs, especially the layout of the Potala Palace. The Potala Palace stands as a classic example of Tibetan palace architecture, encapsulating the essence of Tibetan architectural styles and techniques, and representing the pinnacle of architectural and artistic achievement in Tibet.

Emotional Resonance and Proportional Harmony in Architecture

Emotional Resonance in Architectural Spaces

The Potala Palace, nestled at the foot of Red Hill, offers an unparalleled view of its grandeur from the best vantage points. The journey through the palace begins with an entrance that leads to a courtyard framed by naturally scaled buildings, enhancing the awe-inspiring scale of the palace. A significant moment occurs at the “Inscriptionless Stele,” where the scale of the Potala Palace becomes astonishingly apparent, deepening feelings of reverence. The climb up the grand staircase, with its exaggerated scale, further amplifies the majestic presence of the palace against the backdrop of large stones, small Buddha niches, and fluttering prayer flags.

Pilgrims typically enter the palace via the bountiful assembly path. The entrance, featuring a four-story façade with the top three stories consisting of elongated windows, creates a striking contrast between solid and void, emphasizing the entrance. The path leads through a dimly lit, undecorated corridor, evoking a sense of anticipation before emerging into a brightly lit courtyard. The journey continues through a series of dark passageways until reaching the East Joyful Plaza, fronted by the seven-story White Palace. The plaza, a significant activity space within the Potala Palace, serves as a prelude to entering the White Palace, with its richly decorated entrance and religious and cultural murals.

Proportion and Scale

The proportions of the Potala Palace’s architecture carry distinct regional characteristics. The primary structural elements such as columns and beams are consistently around 2.2 meters, creating a uniform spatial module throughout the building. This repetition of square or nearly square units plays a crucial role in achieving harmonious proportions.

The massiveness of the walls contrasts with the narrow and tall windows, a style unique to Tibetan architecture. The Potala Palace’s grandeur is further emphasized through the careful manipulation of scale. For instance, the fortress-like walls and the expansiveness of the staircases contribute to the palace’s majestic appearance. Even the decorations, like the gilded roof ornaments and large prayer flags, are scaled up to be visible from a distance, ensuring the palace’s grandiosity is perceived regardless of the viewer’s position.

Viewing Angles and Spatial Relationships

The Potala Palace is designed to command attention from all angles. At a distance of approximately 100 meters south of the palace’s walls, an inscription stone naturally creates a perfect vantage point for viewing the palace. From here, the vertical angle of view towards the palace is calculated to offer the most comprehensive perspective of its grandeur. The horizontal viewing angles and the optimal distance for appreciating the architectural ensemble are precisely determined, allowing for an immersive experience of the palace’s magnificence.

The Potala Palace stands as a testament to the sophisticated understanding of emotional resonance, proportion, and spatial dynamics in architecture. It embodies the cultural and religious ethos of Tibet, making it not just a monumental structure but a profound expression of Tibetan identity and spirituality.

Unique Architectural Details of the Potala Palace

Eaves, Windows, Doors, and Color Scheme

The Potala Palace features distinctively crafted eaves made with bemar walls, incorporating copper gilt Sanskrit patterns, symbolic Dharmachakra, animals like rhinos and Garudas, as well as auspicious symbols such as the Ashtamangala. These decorations, outlined in the “Catalog of the Fifth Dalai Lama’s Stupa,” symbolize the radiance of the sun, moon, and stars around Mount Meru, complementing the palace’s golden roofs and creating an intriguing visual interplay.

The palace’s ornate jaling (wind chimes), gold finials, and banners add to its splendor. The architectural design accommodates the local climate, utilizing thick walls and small windows for insulation, with larger windows or floor-to-ceiling doors in significant areas, featuring balconies with railings. A special corner window in the White Palace, reserved for the Dalai Lama’s use, signifies its exclusivity.

The Potala Palace’s color scheme is bold and striking. The majority of its walls are painted white, symbolizing peace and tranquility, while the Red Palace uses a deep ochre, signifying dignity and solemnity. The palace employs chrome yellow for some smaller buildings, indicating prosperity. The combination of white walls, the grandeur of the Red Palace, and the yellow accents, along with the shimmering gold roofs, create a lively and striking effect.

Foundation and Walls

Palace foundations vary, with strip foundations common for flat-terrain constructions, slightly wider than the wall base to accommodate structural loads. In Lhasa, where the frost layer reaches up to 0.7 meters, foundations are set 0.5 to 0.8 meters deep, using compacted earth and stones for stability. Columns rest on square bases filled with compacted stone and clay. Mountain-side constructions directly build upon rock, ensuring a solid base.

Walls primarily consist of stone, with some using rammed earth or mud bricks. Stone walls feature tightly interlocking stones with mud mortar, sometimes incorporating decorative elements for additional solidity. The exterior of walls, painted in bright colors or left natural, adds to the palace’s aesthetic.

Wooden Framework

The wooden framework includes columns, capitals, beams, and rafters, generally joined without metal fasteners. Timber scarcity in Lhasa meant using wood from distant regions, resulting in shorter lengths for ease of transport. The palace’s columns, decorated with gilt copper bands and mythical creatures, support the intricate roof structures, showcasing the skillful carpentry of Tibetan architecture.

The Potala Palace stands as a masterpiece of Tibetan architectural ingenuity, embodying spiritual symbolism, climatic adaptation, and aesthetic brilliance. Its distinct eaves, color palette, and structural elements not only serve functional purposes but also reflect Tibetan cultural and religious values, making it a timeless icon of architectural excellence.

The Potala Palace: A Masterpiece of Tibetan Architecture

Bemar Walls

The term “Bemar” refers to willow in Tibetan. The ochre-red bemar walls, with their distinctive eaves, are a hallmark of Tibetan architecture, symbolizing the nobility of structures such as temples and residences of the Dalai Lama, Panchen Lama, and other high-ranking Lamas, as well as estates housing important Buddhist scriptures like the Kangyur and Tengyur. The Potala Palace, embodying the zenith of Tibetan authority, predominantly features bemar eaves as an adornment. To enhance the decorative effect of the eaves, the palace incorporates protruding beams and rafters with stacked stone plates, a rarity in Tibetan architecture, adorned with gilded metal components.

Golden Roofs

Golden roofs are placed atop important halls to signify their prominence, covered in gilded copper tiles and commonly referred to as “golden roofs.” The Red Palace of the Potala Palace, housing stupas (or tashis) of the Fifth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Thirteenth Dalai Lamas, showcases this style with its hip-and-gable golden roofs. The construction of these roofs doesn’t strictly follow Han architectural practices but instead adapts to local methods, with wooden frames supporting the elaborate gold-plated tiles and decorations. The introduction of golden roofs during the Fifth Dalai Lama’s rule marked a significant advancement in Tibet’s gilding techniques.

Examples and Remnants

The Potala Palace

Constructed in the 7th century, the Potala Palace stands as the most extensive and well-preserved ancient palace complex in Tibet. Originally built by Songtsen Gampo in 641 AD to commemorate his marriage to Princess Wencheng, the palace was envisioned as a grand fortress with a thousand rooms, symbolizing the magnificent Mount Potalaka. However, the original structure was not fully preserved, suffering damage from a fire in the 8th century and later destruction during the collapse of the Tubo kingdom. Today’s Potala Palace, rebuilt in the 17th century on the ruins of the old palace, became the political and spiritual heart of Tibet under the Gelug government established by the Fifth Dalai Lama with Mongol support.

From its inception until the democratic reforms in 1959, the Potala Palace served as the residence and political hub for successive Dalai Lamas, embodying the theocratic governance of Tibet. The palace, sprawling across Marpo Ri hill, incorporates a complex of temples, stupas, living quarters, and administrative buildings. Its facade features thirteen stories, towering 115.4 meters high, with walls made of granite and foundations deeply embedded in the rock, showcasing the architectural prowess and earthquake resilience through significant tapering and metal reinforcement in certain sections.

The exterior, painted in stark white and ochre red, contrasts with the golden roofs, creating a visually striking landmark. The Red Palace, at the center, commands attention with its seven-story window grids, contrasting with the smaller windows and ventilation slits of the White Palace and other parts of the complex. The Potala Palace’s grandeur is further emphasized by its strategic placement on the hill, accessible via a zigzagging stone staircase leading to the eastern and western entrances, presenting a majestic approach to this symbol of Tibetan culture and governance.

The Potala Palace: Divisions and Functions

The Potala Palace’s architecture primarily serves two functions: one part is dedicated to the living quarters and political activities of the Dalai Lama, and the other houses the stupas of past Dalai Lamas along with various temples.

The White Palace (Potrang Karpo)

The White Palace is the focal point for the Dalai Lama’s residential and political activities. The Great East Hall, or Tsochin Dzam, constructed with 44 pillars, stands as the largest hall within the White Palace, hosting significant religious and political ceremonies, including the enthronement and policy declaration events of the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama’s throne, situated in the north of the hall, is adorned with the grand plaque “Zhen Xi Sui Jiang,” featuring the red seal of “Imperial Pen of Tongzhi” above it. The east wall of the hall depicts murals narrating the journey of Princess Wencheng to Tibet. The pinnacle of the White Palace contains two sets of living quarters, bathed in sunlight throughout the day, popularly known as the East and West Sunlight Halls. The West Sunlight Hall (Ni Sey Sang Lhakhang) served as the residence for the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, comprising bedrooms and a small scripture hall. The East Sunlight Hall (Ganden Lhakhang), used by the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, boasts excellent natural lighting and luxurious furnishings, radiating with precious stones and pearls.

The Red Palace (Potrang Marpo)

The Red Palace primarily centers around the stupas of former Dalai Lamas and various temples, with the stupa hall of the Fifth Dalai Lama being particularly elaborate. In addition to his stupa, the hall also contains the stupas of the First, Second, and Tenth Dalai Lamas, along with two Victory Stupas. The Potala Palace, as the center of Tibet’s theocratic governance, preserves a vast collection of historical artifacts, including murals, pearl thangkas, palm leaf manuscripts, and ancient Tibetan scrolls. Noteworthy among the artifacts are the gold and jade seals, certificates of appointment from the Ming and Qing dynasties to the Dalai Lamas, and the golden urn given by Emperor Qianlong for selecting the Dalai Lama. The palace also houses an extensive collection of thangkas, Ming and Qing dynasty brocades, countless porcelains, and other artifacts. Designated as a key national cultural heritage site in 1961, the Potala Palace underwent a six-year renovation from 1989 to 1994, funded by the state, restoring the grandeur of this globally renowned ancient structure. In November 1994, the Potala Palace was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Pabonka Hermitage

Pabonka, also known as Phurbu, meaning “Giant Stone Palace,” is located about 8 kilometers north of Lhasa city, on the southern slope of the Udu Hill (Mount Parasol). The hermitage, resembling a monumental stele perched atop a massive rock resembling a giant tortoise, stands majestically against the backdrop of the rugged landscape. The giant rock, rising nearly 20 meters above the ground and covering an area of about 300 square meters at its top, is surrounded by cliffs, with stone steps carved on the north side for access. The architecture of Pabonka features a north-facing entrance, with the southern side of the building plan being semi-circular and the northern part square. The ground floor is divided into nine rooms of varying sizes and shapes. The original second and third floors housed important religious halls and sanctuaries, including statues of Sakyamuni by Buton Rinchen Drub, the Sixteen Arhats by monks of the Kadampa sect, and other significant figures. The lower sides of the giant rock form caves, slightly extended with stone walls and windows, known as “Tseku Lhakhang,” housing reliefs of the protector deity Palden Lhamo believed to be self-emerged. Although the original statues of Padmasambhava, Trisong Detsen, and other historical figures are no longer present, a unique eight-sided stone lantern and several woodblocks for printing scriptures remain, offering significant research value. Below the southern slope of the giant rock lies the Hall of the Three Protectors, an integral part of Pabonka. After suffering damage through history, it was restored in 1980 through local funding, with recent additions of statues and murals enhancing its spiritual and cultural significance.

The ancient and revered Three Protectors bas-relief and the earliest inscription of the Six-Syllable Mantra by Thonmi Sambhota have fortunately survived. The Six-Syllable Mantra stone is embedded in the right wall of the entrance porch, measuring 1.22 meters in length and 0.66 meters in width, with six large Tibetan characters carved in relief.

The Three Protectors bas-relief, believed to have self-manifested during the era of Songtsen Gampo and later carved by Nepalese craftsmen, differs significantly from the prevalent style of iconography. The Avalokiteshvara statue wears a crown and a high topknot with a Buddha image on it, has four arms with two in prayer at the chest and two at the sides, is partially nude with a cloth draped over the shoulders. Manjushri appears similar to Avalokiteshvara but holds a single-stemmed lotus across his chest. The Vajrapani statue is distinctive, with high topknot, two serpents on the forehead, three eyes, bared fangs, almost fully nude with a cloth draped from the shoulders covering the front, holding a vajra high with the left arm, and the right arm placed across the chest. Despite the rough carving and recent color application obscuring some details, the style suggests they are early works.

A ruin on the north slope of the giant rock, believed to be the residence of Princess Wencheng, originally had two floors with four rooms on the lower level and an east-facing door. Judging by the construction method, it seems to be a modern reconstruction. Additionally, two other ruins on the east side of the giant rock were originally dedicated to Tsongkhapa’s nirmanakaya statues in Tsongkha Lhakhang and Katol Lhakhang. The surrounding hillsides also feature caves rumored to have been meditation sites for Songtsen Gampo, Consorts, Princess Wencheng, Nagarjuna, and others.

Pabongka was initially constructed under the direction of Songtsen Gampo, with numerous Tibetan texts documenting its history. According to the “Tibetan Kings and Ministers,” to suppress negative geomantic influences in Tibet, Songtsen Gampo, along with his two queens, performed rituals at Pabongka. Despite initial setbacks with the construction of the Jokhang Temple due to unfavorable geomantic calculations, the temple’s foundation was successfully laid after re-evaluating Princess Wencheng’s calculations. Songtsen Gampo then ordered the construction of a nine-story fortress on Pabongka, using molten iron to solidify large bricks and reinforcing the structure with iron chains. On the seventh day of rituals, the Three Protectors descended from the sky, promising success in all endeavors. Their images, which naturally appeared on the rock, were later carved by Nepalese artisans and remain visible to this day.

Legend has it that Thonmi Sambhota, after studying writing and rhetoric in India, came to Pabongka and, after three years of secluded study, created the Tibetan script by synthesizing elements from Sanskrit and Urdu, first teaching it to Songtsen Gampo and his ministers. Songtsen Gampo then declared the new script as the official language of the Tibetan Empire. Prominent figures such as Trisong Detsen, Padmasambhava, and scholars from Samye Monastery also visited Pabongka for pilgrimage and meditation.

In 841 CE, during the reign of Langdarma who sought to destroy Buddhism in Tibet, Pabongka was severely damaged. According to folklore, the protector deity Palden Lhamo, enraged by Langdarma’s actions, signaled the time to eliminate the evil king, leading to Langdarma’s assassination at the Jokhang Temple.

Pabongka has undergone several restorations throughout history, with significant efforts recorded in the 11th century by Kadampa monks Bodowa Rinchen Drub and his disciple Zhaga, who rebuilt the site and revived the tradition of sculpting Buddha statues and restoring stupas. The Fifth Dalai Lama further renovated and expanded Pabongka, adding an additional floor to the two-story temple. Subsequent Dalai Lamas continued to visit Pabongka for religious ceremonies and celebrations, maintaining its significance and receiving government support and management appointments from the Ganden Phodrang government.

The Ganden Phodrang Palace, established amidst the political shifts in Tibet, became a pivotal center of power during the era of the Fifth Dalai Lama. This palace, located within the southwestern corner of the Drepung Monastery in Lhasa, is an architectural marvel that stands testament to the unique blend of political and religious significance that characterizes Tibetan history. Constructed on a mountain slope facing south, the Ganden Phodrang Palace spans approximately 5,700 square meters, encapsulated within towering walls that create an imposing yet majestic fortress-like appearance.

The palace complex is divided into three main sections, starting with a modest courtyard that leads into the palace’s expansive central courtyard, flanked by two-story galleries and residential spaces. The main building, elevated by over two meters from the courtyard, is strategically designed with terraced stone walls that align with the natural topography, topped with layers of wooden beams and compacted earth. This three-story main structure housed the Dalai Lama’s administrative and religious activities, with the second floor serving as the primary site for governance and spiritual duties. A distinctive feature is the presence of a chamber on the third floor, which includes the throne of the Fifth Dalai Lama, exquisitely carved and adorned, setting a solemn and mystical ambiance within the room.

The Ganden Phodrang Palace comprises several courtyards, each serving a specific function ranging from the Dalai Lama’s living quarters to spaces designated for religious ceremonies, administrative offices, service rooms for staff, storerooms, kitchens, and stables. Notably, the Dalai Lama had separate residential suites for winter and summer, complemented by landscaped courtyards that brought a touch of nature’s serenity into the architectural ensemble. The palace’s meticulous layout, combining practicality with aesthetic elegance, forms a grand architectural complex that stands as a symbol of Tibet’s rich cultural heritage.

The Gongtang Palace, situated in the southern Tibetan region of Gyirong County, was the heart of the Gongtang Kingdom, a prominent political entity during the fragmentation of the Tubo Empire. Established around the 11th century under the reign of Gongtang King Lhawo Tsering, the palace was fortified with walls and moats, reflecting the architectural ingenuity of the time. Despite several expansions, notably during the reign of the 11th Gongtang King, the palace’s fundamental layout was established, serving as the political nucleus until its dissolution in the 17th century by the Tsangpa ruler. Today, the ruins of Gongtang Palace, covering an area of approximately 155,000 square meters, echo the historical significance and architectural splendor of a bygone era.

The palace ruins feature a double-walled fortification, with the outer walls punctuated by watchtowers at strategic points, facilitating surveillance and defense. The main and rear gates provided access, with religious temples situated at the corners of the inner walls, underscoring the intertwining of spiritual and royal domains. The royal residence, a square structure within the city’s northern section, was once a beacon of the Gongtang dynasty’s might, offering panoramic views for royal and religious observances alike.

These historical sites, from the Ganden Phodrang to the Gongtang Palace, represent the intricate tapestry of Tibetan culture, where architecture serves not only as shelter but as a profound expression of spiritual and temporal authority.

The Gongtang Palace, as recorded in historical texts like “The Origin and Lineage of Gongtang”, comprised various structures within its fortress-like confines: city walls, watchtowers, the central White Palace, the queen’s palace, outer walls, Buddhist temples, stupas dedicated to the Buddha, wells, 16 major monastic complexes (dzongs), a six-story northern palace, Tashi Gomang stupa, Tantric halls, and Tsomala Khang, among others. Due to the passage of time, the physical remnants of these buildings have significantly deteriorated, with records of their existence found primarily in historical documents.

For instance, the Buddhist temple within the palace, according to “Five Tibetan Historical Documents”, had 60 columns and featured an expansive assembly hall with 24 columns and a forecourt for recitations supported by 36 columns. The bases of these columns were uniquely fashioned into tortoise figures, atop which rested elaborate capitals and crossbeams.

Tsomala Khang, detailed in “The Architecture of Tibet”, was originally a two-story structure located centrally within the Gongtang Palace ruins, facing south. Today, only the ground floor remains. It includes a courtyard, a central hall, and a sanctum, showcasing exquisite wood carvings around the courtyard’s columns and the sanctum’s doorframes and beams. The courtyard columns feature interlacing beams decorated with lotus and scrollwork carvings, while the central four columns are sculpted into majestic guardian lions. The crossbeams are detailed with auspicious cloud motifs and gold-filled carvings, enhancing the hall’s grandeur.

The Sakya Palace, governed by the Sakya sect during its reign, integrated both monastic and royal functions, serving as a residence for the ruling “Imperial Preceptor” Phagpa after his return to Sakya and for other administrative officials for daily governance.

Italian Tibetologist Luciano Petech mentioned in “A Study of the History of Tibet under the Mongol Period” that construction of the Great Wall of Sakya’s southern monastery began under Phagpa in 1265. Even after Phagpa’s death, the fortress-like structure remained incomplete, ultimately serving as an administrative center for Mongol and Sakya officials.

Following Phagpa’s death, the Sakya ruling family divided into four “Ladrang”, each hereditarily managed and competing for the Sakya throne. These divisions led to the construction of individual palaces, such as the Potrang and Dzoma Potrang, by competing factions, further emphasizing the palace-monastery architectural style in Sakya.

The Pema (Queen) Palace ruins, located behind the town of Pelbar in Shigatse, sit on a hill facing south, surrounded by the plains of the Yarlung Tsangpo River. The ruins, spanning 50,000 square meters, feature the remains of a three-story stone and mud-brick structure, with a foundation measuring 15 by 10 meters. Defensive walls and a moat surrounded the palace, reflecting its strategic importance. Today, the site is largely in ruins, with remnants of foundations, drainage systems, and secret passages still visible, telling the story of a once powerful queen who ruled over western Tibet before the rise of the Tubo Empire.

These historical sites, from the grandeur of the Gongtang Palace to the strategic complexity of the Pema Palace ruins, illustrate the rich tapestry of Tibetan architectural and political history, where the interplay between religious sanctity and royal authority was manifested in the very stones of these ancient edifices.

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The Pachen Pozhang Palace, located approximately 3.5 kilometers south of Sakya County in the Shigatse region of Tibet, sits atop a mountain surrounded by cliffs on the east and south sides. The palace, historically referred to as the Old Sakya Monastery, is said to precede the construction of the Sakya Monastery (founded in 1073) and dates back to the mid-11th century. According to historical records, Kunga Nyingpo (1034–1102), the founder of the Sakya sect, established a small monastery here, which later became known as the Old Sakya Monastery. The discovery of an iron Phurba (ritual dagger) associated with the Nyingma sect by Konchok Gyelpo, a descendant of Kunga Nyingpo, further solidified the site’s significance, leading to its designation as Pachen Pozhang.

The palace’s layout is trapezoidal, with dimensions indicating a compact structure likely comprising two stories. Despite the challenges posed by its rugged terrain, the palace’s design utilized stone and rammed earth construction techniques to create a durable and imposing structure. Over the centuries, Pachen Pozhang played a foundational role in the development of the Sakya sect, marking an important chapter in Tibet’s religious and architectural history.

Yongbulakang Palace, located in Naidong County within the Shannan region of Tibet, stands on Tashi Tsere hill overlooking the Yarlung Valley. Known as Tibet’s first palace, Yongbulakang is steeped in legend and history, embodying the inception of Tibetan civilization and Buddhism. Traditionally believed to have been established by the first Yarlung king, Nyatri Tsenpo, the palace underwent significant modifications and expansions under subsequent rulers, including Songtsen Gampo. Over time, Yongbulakang transitioned from a royal residence to a Buddhist monastery, reflecting the evolving religious landscape of Tibet.

Presently, Yongbulakang is recognized as a cultural heritage site, having undergone restoration to preserve its historical integrity. The architecture of Yongbulakang, characterized by its fortress-like appearance and distinctive golden roofs, is a testament to the ancient Tibetan art of building. Its preservation offers insight into the early development of Tibetan Buddhism and the region’s architectural traditions.

These sites, from the foundational Pachen Pozhang to the iconic Yongbulakang, illustrate the rich tapestry of Tibet’s cultural and historical legacy, showcasing the integration of religious significance and architectural ingenuity that defines much of Tibetan heritage.

According to legend, one day, the 27th king of Tibet, Trisong Detsen, was resting on the roof of Yungbulakang Palace when suddenly, several objects descended from the sky. The first was the “Hundred Prostration Confession Sutra,” the second was a reliquary stupa, the third was the Six-Syllable Mantra, and the fourth was a set of teachings. A deity then spoke from the sky, telling Trisong Detsen that five generations after him, a king who would understand these objects would be born, marking the introduction of Buddhism into Tibet. While the concept of “divine objects falling from the sky” is not plausible, historical records suggest that these were actually brought from India by a monk named Lobsang Tso. This event is considered the introduction of the first Buddhist scriptures into Tibet.

Today’s Yungbulakang, constructed on the site of the original Tubo (Tibetan Empire) palace, stands as evidence of the era when local tribal leaders’ residences were fortified on mountaintops, reflecting the military and defensive nature of architecture during a time of intertribal conflict. This tradition of situating palaces and government buildings on elevated positions became a historical norm in Tibetan architecture.

Lhagyari Palace, established in the 9th century following the collapse of the Tibetan Empire, was founded by a lineage of the royal family that moved to the area around present-day Quxu County, claiming the title Lhagyari and establishing themselves as local lords. Until the democratic reforms in Tibet in 1959, the Lhagyari kings ruled over an extensive area, demonstrating the enduring legacy of Tibetan nobility. The Lhagyari Palace complex, composed of the Old Palace “Tashi Gomang,” the New Palace “Ganden Lhagyari” (also known as Lhagyari Pozhang), and the Summer Palace, is located in the Shannan region’s Quxu County. The palace and its gardens are situated on the southern bank of the Yarlung River, with the gardens and summer palace located on the lower river terraces to the north. In 1996, Lhagyari Palace was designated as a regional key cultural heritage site, and in 2001, it was recognized as a national key cultural heritage site.

The Old Palace “Tashi Gomang” covered an area of 7,000 square meters, surrounded by stone walls, of which only parts of the eastern and southern walls and a segment of the western wall remain today. The southern gate survives as a remnant, leading to a complex with a rich history, although much of the original architecture has been lost or repurposed into residential buildings, making its original layout and design difficult to discern.

These historical sites, from the mystical legends surrounding Yungbulakang to the enduring legacy of Lhagyari Palace, illustrate the rich tapestry of Tibet’s cultural and architectural heritage, reflecting the integration of Buddhism into Tibetan society and the strategic significance of architectural locations in the region’s history.

The Ganden Lhagyari, which forms the main part of the Lhagyari Royal Palace, is located in the northeastern section of the palace complex, comprising a series of units including the royal residence, storehouses, Lhakang Square, and stables, among others. Positioned on the edge of a river valley with an artificial moat on its east side, this area covers approximately 16,000 square meters.

The Royal Residence

The royal residence, situated on the northern side of the complex, spans roughly 5,000 square meters and is divided into east and west wings, connected at the ground level by a tunnel-like passageway. Originally a five-story structure, only three stories remain today, serving as the primary space for the royal family’s living quarters and administrative activities.

Ground Floor: Primarily consisting of wine cellars and storage areas, the ground floor features a three-tiered “U”-shaped stone staircase and a wooden ladder to the second floor. The eastern entrance leads through a corridor, with additional entrances on the west side for storage rooms designated for grain and other goods, while the northern rooms serve as wine cellars.

Second Floor: This level includes a porch, meeting hall, office space “Chikha Kang,” and ceremonial hall “Chongchin.” The meeting hall, located to the east of the porch, is accessible through a doorway in the eastern wall of the porch. The “Chikha Kang” is situated on the west side of the porch, featuring an irregular floor plan with a long, narrow vestibule leading to an internal area of approximately 50 square meters. The “Chongchin” hall, positioned to the north of the porch, is entered through a 1.2-meter-wide door, leading to a space with 16 columns and a total area of 162 square meters. The hall’s roof is supported by central columns, creating a courtyard-like space with a skylight. Additional rooms on this floor include storages for theatrical costumes and props for religious dances.

Third Floor: Central to this floor is an open-air courtyard, surrounded by various units including meditation rooms and small storage areas. The walls are uniquely constructed from bricks made of cow dung, a traditional Tibetan building material, to reduce the weight on the lower floors. North and east walls of the skylight courtyard have collapsed, but the western wall still stands, showcasing remnants of murals depicting King Songtsen Gampo and other religious figures, still vibrant with colors highlighted by gold outlines.

The fourth and fifth floors, which included areas for religious study, living quarters for the queen and other family members, and a hall for viewing religious dances, have been dismantled. The topmost floors housed sanctuaries dedicated to the Lhagyari’s protective deities, but these too no longer exist.

This comprehensive architectural layout reflects the multifunctional nature of the Ganden Lhagyari, serving both as a royal residence and a center for administrative and religious activities, embodying the rich cultural heritage and architectural ingenuity of Tibet.

The Ganden Phodrang, positioned approximately 50 meters south of the royal residence, encompasses a large assembly hall and a Buddha hall. The assembly hall, located on the north side, originally had its entrance facing south, with dimensions of 26 meters in depth and 23 meters in width. It was supported by 68 pillars, none of which remain today. The Buddha hall is situated on the south side, measuring 23 meters in width and 6 meters in depth, originally a two-story structure, now only its stone walls remain, with remnants standing 4 to 7 meters high. The exterior walls were coated with mud plaster, and remnants of mud sculptures of Buddha’s aureole can be found on the inner walls of the south side, composed of a boat-shaped body halo and a circular head halo, decorated with spiral patterns, though much of it is now damaged and missing. Traces of murals can still be seen on the walls of the Buddha hall, albeit barely recognizable. The Ganden Phodrang served as an early architectural component of the new palace complex, acting as a significant site for royal religious ceremonies and worship.

The central square, situated in the midst of the new palace complex, measures 40 meters by 80 meters, totaling an area of 3200 square meters. The square’s ground is meticulously laid out with white and blue pebbles (0.1 to 0.2 meters in diameter), creating intricate designs such as the “Yungdrung” (eternal knot), lotuses, and the Eight Auspicious Symbols. Although much of the design has faded over time, the lotus pattern remains distinguishable. This square was the venue for major religious events and festival celebrations held by the royal household.

The Summer Palace, located about 1000 meters northeast of the Ganden Phodrang in what is now known as Norbulingka (within the county administrative compound), bordered by the Jiangzha Puju River to the north and cliffs to the south, at an elevation of 3840 meters. Originally comprising palace walls, a bathing pool, and the palace itself, much of these structures no longer exist. The Summer Palace served as a retreat for the Lhagyari royalty during the hot summer months, offering a place for leisure and recreation. Today, only a small palace courtyard remains, situated about 50 meters northeast of the current county administrative office building. This courtyard palace, facing south, features a main building with three rooms across a frontage of 18 meters and a depth of 4 meters, flanked by a single room on each side, and a central courtyard. Both the main and side buildings are accessed via four-tiered stone steps, with doors and windows designed in a Han Chinese style, including lattice windows and paneled doors. The main hall and side rooms display intricate carvings and colorful paintings of peonies, lotuses, phoenixes, and scrollwork, showcasing a distinct Han Chinese architectural influence.

Royal palace architecture represents a significant category within ancient Tibetan architecture, with very few examples preserved in their entirety to the present day. The Lhagyari Royal Palace has maintained its original layout and architectural structure, making it an invaluable example within the unique category of ancient Tibetan royal palaces. As a representation of Tibetan royal architecture, the inclusion of small woodwork, especially the use of dougong (bracket sets) above door lintels, undoubtedly incorporates elements of ancient Han Chinese architecture, thus holding significant research value.

Nêdong Official Mansion

After conquering regions such as Chabcha, Zhigong, and Yasang, and defeating the Sakya dynasty, the leader of the Phagmodrupa Kagyu sect, Changchub Gyaltsen (1302-1364), established the Phagmodrupa local government with its political center in Nêdong, thus the residence there was known as Nêdong Official Mansion or Nêdong Palace. Located on a modest hill on the east bank of the Yarlung River in the Shannan area, the mansion was strategically placed on a horseshoe-shaped hill with an opening to the southeast and connected to mountain ranges to the northeast, offering a defensive advantage.

The original construction scale of the official mansion was quite large, covering almost the entire hilltop. However, it was destroyed during conflicts with the Jonang Dzongpa, leaving it nearly leveled and never restored. Presently, the site comprises three levels of earth platforms, each approximately 3000 square meters in area, arranged in a stepwise fashion from south to north. It is said that the original palace (Potala) was situated at the summit, with secret passages leading down to the base of the hill. Granaries were built on the southern foothills, while temples were located in the northern recesses of the Zong Mountain.

Today, only three terraces remain of the Nêdong Official Mansion, and the original form and planning are unknown, with only historical records providing some insight. The “Tibetan Royal Chronicles” translated by Liu Liqian mentions the renovation of estates and the expansion of the Nuodong Palace (Nêdong Official Mansion). The “Lang Family History” records various architectural names within the palace, such as the six-pillar hall, four-pillar hall, five-pillar xia (summer residence), six-pillar xia, main hall, kitchen on the upper floor, central dining room, corner tower of the stables, and the mansion’s gate tower, among others. This document also describes the expansion plans for the mansion, including extending the stables, constructing storage for treasures and important items, guest rooms, granaries, and defensive features like walls, corner towers, and moats, reflecting the martial nature of the Phagmodrupa regime and its societal context.

The Nêdong Official Mansion housed administrative offices, the Lang family residence, quarters for numerous attendants, religious buildings, and more, with the mentioned expansions adding defensive structures, storage facilities, and guest reception areas to meet the needs of a society that required strong defense mechanisms.

Eleven: Qingwadazi Palace Ruins Located behind (northeast) the government office of Qiongjie County in the Shannan area of Tibet, 28 kilometers from the seat of the Shannan region, at an elevation of 3700 meters. Qingwadazi Mountain is steep and rugged, with winding paths and protruding rocks. In the early period of Tubo, there were lakes in front of the mountain, surrounded by lush vegetation, towering trees, and gurgling springs, offering picturesque scenery. From the 9th to the 15th Tubo kings, from Budigongjian to Tiaoxiaolie, six palaces were built on this mountain: Dazi, Guizi, Yangzi, Chizi, Zimu Qiongjie, and Chizi Bang. These constitute the six Qingwadazi palaces mentioned in historical texts, forming the second-largest palace complex built in ancient Tubo. After the capital moved to Lhasa, these palaces served as temporary residences for successive Tibetan kings and Tibetan government officials when visiting the tombs in Qiongjie, undergoing continuous expansion. By 1302, with the establishment of the Phagmodrupa government’s Zongxi system and the creation of the Qiongjie Zong, government buildings were constructed on Qingwadazi Mountain, merging palaces and administrative offices into a magnificent complex. During the Cultural Revolution, both the palace and administrative buildings were destroyed, leaving only the foundations.

Twelve: Zamastang Palace Ruins Located about 10 kilometers north of Samye Monastery in Zhanang County, Shannan region, on a small hill in Sampu Township. The name “Zamastang” appears in various transliterations in Chinese historical records, such as “Chamazhensang” and “Zhamazhengsang,” with the “Tibetan Royal Chronicles” also referring to it as “Red Rock Palace.” According to records such as “The Banquet of the Sages,” Zamastang was established in the early 8th century as one of the palaces of King Tride Tsuktsen (Trisong Detsen) and Princess Jincheng. The palace has a modest footprint of only 200 square meters, with the main entrance facing west. It originally featured a small courtyard with a two-tiered platform at the back, toilets on the left, and two living rooms at the rear. The walls were constructed from large stones and thin slates, reflecting the simple structure and meticulous construction of early palaces. Unfortunately, it is now in ruins. Following Tride Tsuktsen’s death, Trisong Detsen, then a young king, witnessed the destruction of Tibetan Buddhism by corrupt officials, including the demolition of Zamastang. Later, to commemorate these historical figures, the palace was restored and converted into a small temple, housing statues of Tride Tsuktsen, Trisong Detsen, and others, losing its palace characteristics and gradually falling into disuse by the 1950s due to lack of maintenance.

Thirteen: Yangzi Potala Palace Ruins “Potrang” means “palace” in Tibetan. The site is located on the south side of the Fourth Village in Limai Township, Lhünzê County, Shannan region. The original palace was built along an east-west oriented ridge, with a road to the county town on the south and the village across the river to the north. The relative height difference with the current road is about 40 meters, at an elevation of 3850 meters. The palace complex stretched along the ridge with slopes on three sides and a passage to the west, forming a strategically elevated military position. The architecture, primarily concentrated in the eastern and central parts, was built from neatly arranged stones, with no gaps filled with mortar, and surviving wall remnants standing 3-5 meters tall. The complex included larger halls of 60-80 square meters and smaller rooms of 10-30 square meters. According to surveys, the palace complex originally included the Jalapa Potrang, Naidan Potrang (Arhat Hall), Shenmen Potrang Hengjikang, and Sanyongkang, among others, with sturdy watchtowers on all sides, forming a “monastic-fortress” complex with military defensive features.

Yangzi Potrang, also known as “Jabazhiben Potrang,” was built by a local ruler named Jabazhiben. His birth and death years are unknown, and he was born in the Yabeng region. The construction of Yangzi Potrang is estimated to be during the “Thirteen Myriarchies” period of the Yuan dynasty, around the 13th century, making the site approximately 700 years old. After Jabazhiben, the complex was once occupied by Dorje Pakmo from the Yarlung region in the 15th century. The Tibetan government “Gaxag” also used the complex during the reign of the 12th Dalai Lama, Trinley Gyatso (1856-1875), as a government office.

Fourteen: Karub Palace Karub Palace, originally belonging to the seventh prince, Xia Chi, of the Tibetan king Tzongkha Zanpu, was established following internal turmoil. After Tzongkha Zanpu was assassinated by his minister Aro Madzi, Prince Xia Chi and his family were forced to flee to Bomê, where the local populace welcomed and elected him as their leader, establishing the strong local regime of the Karub dynasty as its first king. In 1240, the second Karub king, Bazhalo Zhun, built the Qingwadazi Palace in Karub Daba (present-day Bomê, Karub Village, Nyingchi), with an architecture reminiscent of the Potala Palace. The palace spans over 1000 square meters, integrating the local architectural style of the Gongbu region. The Karub dynasty governed the regions of Yigong, Budui, and Zhukung at its zenith, extending its rule to Shannan, Gongbu, Kham, and Motuo. The significant regional power posed a great threat to the Tibetan ruling authority. Between 1927 and 1931, the 27th Karub king, Wangqing Gedui, clashed with the Tibetan Ganden Phodrang government. Outnumbered, he was defeated by the formidable Ganden Phodrang army and fled to India with his remnants, leading to the downfall of the Karub dynasty. In the late period of the Republic of China, the Karub Palace was completely destroyed in wars, with its treasures looted, leaving only traces of the palace foundation (Image 3-4-15).

Fifteen: Guge Palace By the end of the 9th century, with the collapse of the Tubo dynasty, regional tribes divided and internal wars persisted. Among the descendants of the Tubo royal family, one, Gede Nyimagön, fled to Ngari, and his three sons governed different regions, with the oldest son, Dezon Gön, taking charge of Guge, establishing the Kingdom of Guge. Before the unification of Tibet by the Tubo dynasty, this area was part of the Zhangzhung kingdom, a cradle of the Bon religion in Tibetan history, holding significant historical influence. Trisong Detsen established friendly relations with the princess of Zhangzhung, making it a vassal state. The Guge Kingdom, covering the areas of Zhabrang and Daba in Ngari, was under the local administration of Zhabrang and Daba Zongs (equivalent to counties) during the Tibetan local government era, which were merged into Zanda County (Zanda Zong) after the democratic reforms.

Guge Palace, part of the Guge royal fortress complex, now lies in ruins (Images 3-4-16, 3-4-17). The exact demise of the Guge Kingdom is detailed in “A Brief History of the Tibetans” by the Tibetan Research Group of the Institute of Ethnic Studies, Chinese Academy of Sciences, documenting the 1841 invasion of Ladakh by Dogra forces under British instigation, which led to the destruction of Guge. The account aligns with local legends and archaeological findings, confirming the historical accuracy of the Guge Kingdom’s end. The ruins of the Guge royal fortress complex are located on a clay hill 30 kilometers west of present-day Zanda County, near Zhabrang Village. The site, overlooking the Xiangquan River, features flat terrain with pastures and farmlands.

The summit palace area, elevated about 160 meters above the plain at the foot of the hill, is situated on an “S”-shaped plateau at the top of the Guge Kingdom’s fortress complex ruins. Irregular in shape, it stretches approximately 210 meters from north to south, with its widest section exceeding 78 meters and the narrowest part merely 17 meters, covering an area of about 7150 square meters. The periphery is protected by adobe walls, each segment featuring arrow towers and watchtowers, complete with shooting holes and observation windows, forming the last line of defense on the summit. The palace area, severely damaged and collapsed, can still be identified with 56 rooms, 14 caves, 20 bastions, 4 secret passages, and about 430 meters of existing defense walls. The palace buildings are arranged according to the topography, and based on their distribution and density, can be divided into three groups: south, middle, and north.

The southern group of buildings centers around a meeting hall, including the king’s administrative and residential chambers, offices, the king and queen’s bedrooms, waiting rooms, servants’ quarters, and defensive structures. The middle group comprises 16 rooms dedicated to religious buildings and institutions, including a “Hui”-shaped temple, assembly hall, and monks’ quarters, centered around the “Hui”-shaped temple. According to “The Old City of Guge,” the temple is “Hui”-shaped, with a slightly “convex”-shaped center, measuring 10 meters deep from east to west and 7.8 meters wide from north to south, with protruding sections on each side for grand niches. The temple’s main beam has two beams running north-south, with crossbeams east-west, supporting four pillars. A circumambulatory path surrounds the temple, with remnants of a Buddha’s Vairocana seat in the middle, suggesting a once present large standing Buddha statue. The temple walls, built with stone bases and adobe, taper towards the top.

The northern group is located at the summit’s northern end, with its center about 70 meters away from the middle group, featuring 22 rooms, including Gongkang Cave and Jinkela Kang (Mandala Hall), related to security, military institutions, and residences.

The presence of a significant number of temples, monastic residences, and stupas within the palace area highlights the prominent role of religion in society at that time, with some royal members serving as religious leaders. However, the governance of the Guge people was still under the king’s authority.

Constructed on a terracotta hill with scarce stone resources, all buildings used rammed earth walls, with only the foundations and steps using some stones. Due to the low rainfall in the Guge area, most walls remain well-preserved. The structural support primarily utilized wood for beams, columns, doors, windows, and eaves. Given the scarcity of wood, the materials used were relatively small in cross-section, and decorations on the door frames, column heads, brackets, and eaves were minimal, making the Guge architectural wood components appear simple, austere, and elegant. However, detailed carvings were applied to key areas like door frames, column heads, and brackets, showcasing smooth lines, vivid imagery, and unique artistic effects. The collective architecture of the Guge Kingdom, a classic example of fortress architecture, profoundly influenced the development of later Zongshan (fortified monastic complexes) architecture.