A Glimpse into Lhasa’s Ancient Charm: A Visitor’s Perspective from the Year 804 AD
In 804 AD, from the envoy reception hall in the ancient city of Lhasa (formerly called Luoxie), a pair of lonely eyes gazed toward the horizon. This envoy, usually engrossed in the complexities of governance and the shifting dynamics of the court, found rare leisure time on this day. In this serene moment, he could finally appreciate the renowned and solitary beauty of the Tibetan plateau.
The Magnificent Landscape of the Tibetan Plateau
What he saw stretched across his view like a painting. The plateau’s ethereal essence seemed to form mystical shapes, resembling the high-hung moons scattered across the sky. Majestic snow-capped mountains bloomed like lotus flowers, towering between heaven and earth. Due to the high altitude, the peaks and mid-levels of the mountains exhibited starkly contrasting landscapes, as if dividing realms. This scene alone invoked the ancient name of the city, Luoxie, and made him wonder if he had indeed stepped into a celestial paradise.
Cultural Impressions and Deep Historical Bonds
The envoy was touched by the locals’ straightforward, cheerful character and by the sight of the Jokhang Temple, with its Chinese architectural style and grand east-facing entrance pointing toward his homeland. This door, symbolically open to the central plains of China, stirred a deep historical connection. Standing before it, the envoy felt an undeniable link across both culture and geography, making the vast distance between the regions dissolve in that moment. Here, he found a sense of belonging—a feeling of “no doors nor boundaries,” as if all lands were his home.
Lu Wen’s Mission to Tibet: A Journey of Diplomacy and Poetry in Tang Dynasty
Lu Wen, a renowned Tang Dynasty scholar and statesman, also known later in life as “Lu Hengzhou,” shared close friendships with influential figures such as Liu Yuxi and Liu Zongyuan. In 804 AD, he was sent on a mission to Tibet, where he stayed for over a year. During this time, he composed 12 poems and four memorials, documenting his experiences and leaving a valuable literary legacy that has become an essential resource for understanding Sino-Tibetan relations of that era.
The Background of Sino-Tibetan Relations in the Late Tang Dynasty
After the devastating An Lushan Rebellion, Tibet took advantage of the Tang Dynasty’s weakened state and attacked Chang’an, further straining relations. By 787 AD, the political climate had soured even more, particularly following a failed treaty attempt in Pingliang, where the Tibetan army ambushed Tang forces, resulting in significant losses. This incident marked a turning point, after which Tibet launched frequent invasions. In 790 AD, Tibetan forces captured both the Anxi and Beiting Protectorates, expanding their control over the Western Regions. In response, the Tang Dynasty sought alliances with the Abbasid Caliphate, Uyghurs, and Nanzhao to counter Tibetan advances, which ultimately led to setbacks for Tibet.
A Turning Point: The Diplomatic Mission in 803 AD
A diplomatic shift occurred in 803 AD when Tibet sent envoys to the Tang court to repair relations, also informing them of the passing of Muné Tsenpo, son of Trisong Detsen. This initiative marked the first step in restoring formal diplomacy after a fifteen-year hiatus. The Tang Dynasty responded warmly, sending emissaries Xue Pi and Zhang Jian to express condolences, alongside Lu Wen. The Old Book of Tang mentions this diplomatic exchange, noting that Tang officials held a three-day mourning period for the deceased Tibetan ruler and dispatched high-ranking officials, including Zhang Jian and Lu Wen, to Tibet as a gesture of respect.
Lu Wen’s Poetic Expression of Longing and Diplomatic Sentiment
While in Tibet, Lu Wen’s writings reflect his profound longing for home. In his poem A Moonlit Night at the Tibetan Guesthouse, he writes:
“The solitary moon shines over these desolate lands, as it does upon my distant homeland.
I turn away from its glow, unable to face its fullness.”
Another poem reflects his homesickness during a Tang festival he missed:
“In bright seasons, hundreds gather at court,
But in these remote, desolate mountains, I am an ailing guest.
I imagine the joyful gathering of friends,
How many remember my journey to the distant west?”
Legacy and Impact of Lu Wen’s Writings
Lu Wen’s literary work provides a rich cultural and historical insight into Sino-Tibetan relations, capturing the complexity of diplomatic missions and personal sentiment amidst the challenges of the time. His writings have since become critical resources for scholars exploring the cultural exchange and political intricacies of the Tang-Tibetan relationship.
The Solitude of Lu Wen: Reflections in the Mountains of Lhasa
Surrounded by the towering mountains of Lhasa, Lu Wen found no solace in their embrace; instead, the piercing clarity of the plateau’s moon intensified his loneliness. Despite a slight thaw in relations between Tibet and the Tang Dynasty, mistrust lingered on both sides. This atmosphere, along with the lack of a clear return date, forced Lu Wen to extend his stay.
Lu Wen’s Resilience Amid Political and Cultural Isolation
Praised by Liu Yuxi as a man whose strength of character only grew with age, Lu Wen was not one to succumb to despair. Even after returning from Tibet in 808 AD, when he was exiled to Daozhou due to political conflicts, he drew strength from his Tibetan experiences, recounting them as motivation:
“The moonlit night in the guesthouse, the icy rivers, and snow-covered mountains of Tibet.
The moon in Daozhou, blood-red frost, and wailing cuckoos.
My valiant spirit echoes in a solitary sword,
Hidden fire lies dormant, yet it remains unextinguished.”
His evocative verse depicting the Tibetan landscape reveals his powerful spirit, capturing the beauty and isolation of the region.
Documenting History Through Poetry: Encounters and Events
Lu Wen’s poetry not only expresses his emotions and admiration for the landscape but also provides historical insights. In his poem Farewell to Yuan the Scribe at Lintao, he recalls meeting a man named Yuan Tongzhi, known as “Yuan the Monk,” whom the Tibetan forces had captured during the infamous Pingliang Treaty ambush. Now, 17 years later, Lu Wen encountered him again, noting that Yuan had become a monk, a move scholars suggest might have been a survival strategy given Buddhism’s prominence and monks’ elevated status in Tibet at the time.
In addition, Lu Wen’s works, such as At the Red Bank Bridge in Hezhou and Reply to the Tubo People’s Songs, provide insights into the lives of the Tang people under Tibetan rule and the complex relations between the two empires. His verses capture the subtle balance between cooperation and resistance, giving voice to the nuanced perspectives of the people caught between two cultures.
Lu Wen’s poetry transcends his personal journey, becoming a lens through which to view the Tang-Tibetan relationship. His works fill gaps in historical records, capturing a period of diplomatic tension and cultural exchange. Lu Wen’s experiences in Tibet, immortalized through his resilient words, reflect both a poet’s soul and a statesman’s tenacity in the face of isolation and political complexity. His legacy remains a bridge between the Tang and Tibetan worlds, rich with insight and emotion.
Tang Poets’ Reflections on Tibet: The War-Torn Landscape in Du Fu’s Verse
In the Tang Dynasty, the tense political and military atmosphere between the Tang Empire and Tibet was a recurring theme in poetry. Famous poets like Du Fu and Bai Juyi depicted the reality of warfare and cultural encounters with Tibet, often portraying the conflicts of the time. According to scholars, Du Fu, whose body of work contains over 1,500 poems, dedicated more than 150 of them—about one-tenth—to the Tang-Tibetan relationship. This collection illustrates not only the poet’s patriotism but also his deep aversion to war’s toll on humanity.
Du Fu’s Alarmed and the Precaution Against Xirong
One prominent example is Du Fu’s 763 AD poem Alarmed, where he expresses caution toward the western Tibetan forces, or “Xirong.” His lines remind the court of the strategic importance of diplomacy and vigilance in the face of Tibet’s military maneuvers:
“Renowned former generals of Chu, wise in military plans,
Though Jade Fortress received orders, Songzhou barely escaped siege.
The strategy of marriage alliances is feeble; the princess in exile.
Who now holds Qinghai? Western barbarians grow strong.”
Du Fu’s poetry often emphasizes a prudent approach to Tibet, reflecting the necessity for cautious diplomacy during times of frequent military incursions.
Condemning the Horrors of War in The Ballad of the War Carts
Du Fu’s disdain for war is evident in his narrative poem The Ballad of the War Carts, where he vividly portrays the human cost of conflict:
“Indeed, it’s misfortune to bear sons; better to have daughters.
Daughters marry nearby; sons are lost, buried in distant grasslands.
See the ancient bones lying unclaimed on Qinghai’s plains,
New spirits wail, old ghosts moan, wet voices echo in the gloom.”
While interpretations vary, most scholars believe this poem references the Battle of Shibao Fortress in 749 AD, located in what is now Huangyuan, Qinghai. In this bloody conflict, tens of thousands of Tang soldiers perished while recapturing the fortress from Tibetan forces. Du Fu’s lament, “Blood flows along the frontier like the sea,” encapsulates the poet’s anguish at the senseless violence.
The Fall of Chang’an in 763 AD: Winter Hunt
In the wake of the An Lushan Rebellion, Tibet capitalized on the Tang’s internal instability. In 763 AD, Tibetan forces, led by generals Shang Jiasu, Lun Dazalu Gong, and Shang Dongzan, invaded the Tang territories of Hexi and Longyou, even briefly capturing the capital, Chang’an. This event forced Emperor Daizong to flee, while Tibet installed a puppet regime.
During this period, Du Fu wrote Winter Hunt, criticizing the complacency of military leaders such as Zhang Yi, who prioritized leisure over defense against the Tibetan army:
“The Emperor is absent from the palace of Chang’an,
Though no peril akin to King You’s calamity,
How can we ignore the dust that fills our lands once more?”
Du Fu’s verse in Winter Hunt reflects the poet’s frustration with the Tang government’s failure to protect its people and territory from Tibetan invasions. His plea underscores the impact of these incursions on the Tang Dynasty, serving as a timeless reminder of the importance of strong leadership and unity.
Du Fu’s poetic chronicles reveal both his nationalism and profound empathy for the people caught in the crossfire of the Tang-Tibetan conflicts. His works not only document these historical events but also serve as a critique of the human cost of war, shedding light on the era’s geopolitical dynamics and the consequences of diplomatic and military decisions. Du Fu’s poetry, a blend of historical record and personal reflection, continues to resonate as a powerful testament to the complexities of Tang Dynasty relations with Tibet.
Tang Poets and Ming-Qing Ambassadors: Contrasting Impressions of Tibet
Tang Dynasty poets like Du Fu often depicted Tibet with a sense of urgency and deep patriotism, framing the Tang-Tibetan relationship through the lens of military and diplomatic tension. Du Fu’s poems Sending Yang Liu, Commissioner to the West and Recently Heard reflect his hope for a strengthened alliance through marriage diplomacy, often known as “heqin.” His optimism shines in the lines:
“From afar, I cherish our alliance; I wish for peace through marriage.
The Emperor’s decree cares for the Zanpu, soldiers look to Chang’an.”
In another verse, he imagines Tibetans warmly welcoming his friend Yang Liu, envisioning an amicable, festive scene:
“Border wines poured in gold goblets, exotic songs raise jade plates.
The grass is soft for the sturdy Tibetan horses; snow weighs upon the yurts.”
While some scholars interpret Du Fu’s poems as supporting marriage alliances, others suggest he was critical of them, possibly influenced by the complexities of Tang-Tibetan diplomacy. Another famous Tang poet, Zhang Yue, commemorated the marriage of Princess Jincheng to the Tibetan king in Escorting Princess Jincheng to the West in Response to the Imperial Command, where he writes:
“The day of peace at Qinghai, a bright star descends.
The Tibetan king is honored as a son-in-law; the Han family treats him with care.”
In his poem Recently Heard, Du Fu conveys satisfaction with the temporary peace and stability, writing:
“I recently heard of the distant retreat of Xirong,
Their horses no longer invade our borders at Lintao.
Along the winding Wei River, white daylight stretches,
At the solemn Long Mountains, autumn clouds rise high.”
This serene verse reflects Du Fu’s longing for lasting harmony between the Tang and Tibet, and his optimism in a time of tentative peace.
Ming-Qing Diplomacy and Sun Shiyi’s Journey on the Ice Sea
In stark contrast to Tang poets, Ming and Qing envoys who ventured to Tibet wrote poetry that emphasized the beauty and grandeur of the Tibetan landscape, focusing less on political anxieties and more on the region’s natural splendor. A striking example comes from Sun Shiyi, Governor of Sichuan in the Qing Dynasty, who penned Journey on the Ice Sea during his 1791 mission to deliver provisions to Tibet amidst the war with the Gurkhas. His verses are rich with vivid imagery:
“A lake hidden in the mountain’s embrace, forty miles wide,
The deep sea frozen over, yellow springs below.
Ice as vast as a sea, water deep,
Strong winds blow, yet not a wave stirs.”
In this poem, Sun captures the forbidding yet awe-inspiring Tibetan landscape:
“Frost clouds linger, mingling with smoke,
A vast land of crystal as far as the eye can see.”
Sun’s poetry celebrates the vastness and beauty of Tibet’s natural world, creating an atmospheric contrast to the solemn, war-conscious verses of Tang poets like Du Fu. His writing reveals a shift in Chinese attitudes toward Tibet over centuries—from Tang-era political anxiety to Qing-era admiration for the land’s rugged beauty and resilience.
The poetic portrayals of Tibet by Tang poets and later Ming-Qing ambassadors reflect evolving views over time. Tang poets often wrote from a perspective of patriotic duty and concern over military conflicts, while later envoys celebrated the land’s beauty, reflecting an era more focused on exploration and awe than on political tension. Together, these works capture the multifaceted relationship between China and Tibet, immortalizing both the challenges and marvels encountered across dynasties.
Cultural Encounters and Poetic Reflections in Tibet
Through his poetry, the envoy’s connections with Tibetan people reveal a profound appreciation for the warmth and wisdom of Tibetan monastic figures. His encounter with the hermit monk Tsangdu Hutuktu, who lived secluded in the mountains, left a deep impression on him. The two enjoyed a heartfelt conversation, and the monk’s kindness touched him so deeply that he wrote:
“At the temple gates, we clasp hands in farewell,
Words said, parting felt so serene.”
Another significant meeting occurred with Kunga Panjor, a respected teacher whose profound wisdom astonished the poet. He compared the master to the enlightened figure Vimalakirti, writing:
“In this place, I meet Vimalakirti,
North of the snow, south of Tibet—a wonder indeed.”
He continued to praise the teacher’s wisdom with the lines:
“A rare soul from the Western lands, as accomplished as you,
Beneath the ancient Buddha’s lamp, he grants me words.”
Such encounters not only captured the people’s spirit but also immortalized the beauty of Tibet’s natural wonders, as seen in the majestic Pali Jomulari Snow Mountain.
Poetic Lens on the Tibetan Landscape and Culture
The poems transform the rugged terrain and austere lifestyle into works of art, infusing Tibetan landscapes and people with a sense of beauty that softens the worldly struggles and history’s weight. Each verse, like a gentle brushstroke, reflects the harmony between culture and nature, echoing an ancient melody resonating from the depths of Tibetan tradition—a land timeless and revered as a spiritual mother.
The evocative language also brings forth images from history, such as William Hayman’s photographs of Mount Everest from the 1903 British expedition, which reveal the awe-inspiring natural landscape captured in these poems.
References:
- Yu Shucheng, Tang Envoys to Tibet and Their Poems: On Lü Wen’s Diplomatic Journey
- Lu Li, Research on Lü Wen’s Poems and Historical Events of His Mission to Tibet
- Zhao Zongfu, Sun Shiyi and His Tibetan Poems
