The Tibetan Empire, a beacon of ancient civilization on the Tibetan Plateau, thrived from the early 7th to the mid-9th centuries. Ruled by a succession of monarchs from Songtsen Gampo to Langdarma, this empire witnessed over two centuries of expansion and cultural flourishing. At its zenith, the empire’s influence extended across modern-day Tibet, Qinghai, Gansu, the Kham region of Sichuan, southern Xinjiang, northwestern Yunnan, as well as the entirety of Nepal, Bhutan, parts of Central Asia, and northern India.
The Extensive Reach of the Tibetan Empire
Map of the Tibetan Empire Circa 700 AD
A map from the year 700 AD showcases the vast territories under the Tibetan Empire’s control. Originally referred to as “Tufan” in historical Chinese records, the ancestors of the Tibetan people were known as “Fa Qiang. (发羌)”
The Formation of the Tibetan Empire
Before the 6th century, the Tibetan Plateau was a mosaic of small states and tribes, many of which spoke Tibetan languages, with some descending from the Qiang and Xianbei peoples. These tribes eventually united into 12 small principalities, with the Yarlung tribe from the Yalong River Valley emerging as the most powerful. This tribe not only unified the smaller states but also founded the renowned Tibetan Empire.
The Legendary Origins of the Tibetan Kings
According to Tibetan legend, around 127 BC, an extraordinary child appeared in the Yarlung River Valley of southern Tibet, who could not speak the local language. When the curious locals asked where he came from, he pointed to the sky. Several Bon priests believed he was from the heavens and took him to their tribe, crowning him as their king. This child became known as Nyatri Tsenpo, the first in the line of the legendary Tibetan kings, with subsequent monarchs claiming descent from him.
The Expansion and Cultural Milestones of the Tibetan Empire
Before the reign of Songtsen Gampo, it’s said that the royal lineage had been passed down through more than 20 generations without written records, making the early history of the Tibetan Empire somewhat enigmatic.
The Tibetan Empire, under the leadership of its early monarchs, experienced significant territorial expansion and cultural development during the 6th and 7th centuries. This period marked a transformative era in Tibetan history, characterized by conquests, strategic alliances, and the establishment of cultural institutions that would shape the identity of Tibet for centuries to come.
Songtsen Gampo: A Visionary Leader Conquests and Consolidation
In the 6th century, Namri Songtsen used military force to annex neighboring tribes, including Senpo Je, Zanpo, and Niyani Dabu, among others. Unfortunately, Namri Songtsen’s reign ended abruptly when he was assassinated. His son, Songtsen Gampo, succeeded him, quelling rebellions among the tribes and further consolidating his rule.
Songtsen Gampo continued his father’s legacy, conquering and annexing regions such as Yushu Senpo, Subi, Qamdo, the “Kang” region (referred to as “Dongnüguo” in Chinese historical texts), Garzê, Litang, and the Tuyuhun territory in Qinghai. In 633 AD, Songtsen Gampo established Lhasa as the capital of the empire, naming it “Tubo” and building a royal palace on the Red Hill.
The Creation of Tibetan Script
Songtsen Gampo also sent 16 Tibetan children to ancient India to study, including Thonmi Sambhota, who later created the Tibetan script. However, some historians argue that Tibet had its script before Thonmi Sambhota’s creation, suggesting that Tibetan writing originated from the Zhangzhung region (modern-day Ali) during the establishment of the Bön religion.
Diplomatic Marriages and Cultural Exchanges
After conquering most of the Tibetan Plateau, Songtsen Gampo sent Gar Tongtsen to Nepal, forcing King Amsuvarman to marry his daughter, Princess Chizun, to Songtsen Gampo. Princess Chizun brought with her the first Buddha statue in Tibetan history, an eight-year-old life-sized representation of Sakyamuni, for which the Ramoche Temple (Jokhang Temple) was built to house the sacred image.
In 634 AD, Songtsen Gampo’s envoys made the first official contact with the Tang Dynasty. Hearing that the Tuyuhun king had married a Tang princess, Songtsen Gampo requested a Tang princess for marriage. His request was initially rejected by Emperor Taizong of Tang, angering Songtsen Gampo and exacerbating tensions with Tuyuhun.
The Tibetan Empire: A Story of Conquests and Cultural Exchanges
The mid-7th century was a defining period for the Tibetan Empire, marked by strategic military campaigns and significant cultural milestones. Under the leadership of Songtsen Gampo, Tibet expanded its territories, engaged in diplomatic maneuvers, and established itself as a dominant force on the Tibetan Plateau and beyond.
The Military Campaigns of Songtsen Gampo
In 637 AD, Songtsen Gampo, leveraging the pretext of obstruction by the Tuyuhun and an alliance with Zhangzhung, launched a major campaign against the Tuyuhun, conquering its allied states, the Tangut and Bailan, and pushing towards the Tang dynasty’s border at Songzhou in present-day Songpan County, Sichuan. Despite initial resistance from the Tang forces led by Governor Han Wei, the Tibetan army emerged victorious. However, subsequent Tang counterattacks led by generals Hou Junji, Zhi Shisili, and Niu Jinda defeated the Tibetan forces. Despite these setbacks, Tibetan historical records consistently claim victory in this conflict.
The Strategic Marriage Alliance
Banchen Sonam Drakpa’s “New Red Annals” emphasizes that Emperor Taizong of Tang was initially reluctant to marry off a princess to Tibet. It was only under the military pressure from Tibet that he agreed to a marriage alliance. Realizing the Tang dynasty’s strength, Songtsen Gampo shifted to a peaceful approach, sending minister Gar Tongtsen to formally request a marriage alliance and present dowry gifts.
The Arrival of Princess Wencheng
In 640 AD, the Tang dynasty sent Princess Wencheng to marry Songtsen Gampo, bringing with her a life-sized statue of Sakyamuni at the age of 12, for which the Ramoche Temple (now known as the Small Jokhang) was built.
Tibet’s Influence Expands
By 641 AD, Tibet helped Nepal quell an internal rebellion, subsequently making it a vassal state. The following year, Songtsen Gampo unified the Tibetan Plateau by conquering Zhangzhung. In 647 AD, when Tang envoys were detained in India by the Kingdom of Magadha, Songtsen Gampo invaded India under the pretext of rescuing them, thereby extending his conquests to the northern regions of India.
The Legacy of Songtsen Gampo
During Songtsen Gampo’s reign, Tibet maintained good relations with the Tang dynasty, secured through the marriage alliance with Princess Wencheng. Songtsen Gampo passed away in 650 AD, and his grandson, Mangsong Mangtsen, succeeded him. With the young king on the throne, the regent Gar Tongtsen took charge, continuing Songtsen Gampo’s policies, improving laws, conducting a census, determining tax obligations, and stabilizing Tibet internally.
The Fall of Tuyuhun
In 663 AD, following the defection of a Tuyuhun minister to Tibet, Gar Tongtsen invaded Tuyuhun, conquering it and renaming it “Aqin.” The Tuyuhun king and the Tang princess fled to the Tang dynasty for refuge, while Tibet installed a puppet king in Tuyuhun, with Gar Tongtsen overseeing its governance.
An image depicts a Dunhuang mural, Cave 156, showing General Zhang Yichao leading troops.
The Struggle for the Western Regions
As Tibet’s power grew, it began to challenge the Tang dynasty for control of the Western Regions, launching multiple military campaigns against the Anxi Protectorate’s four towns (Kucha, Khotan, Karashahr, and Kashgar) and inciting rebellions against the Tang dynasty; Tibet also defeated Balur, establishing a new Balur king, thereby securing another stronghold in the Western Regions.
This narrative provides a snapshot of the Tibetan Empire’s expansion under Songtsen Gampo, highlighting its military conquests, diplomatic strategies, and the cultural exchanges that played a crucial role in shaping the region’s history.
The Power Struggles and Expansions of the Tibetan Empire
The mid to late 7th and early 8th centuries were tumultuous times for the Tibetan Empire, marked by fierce battles for territorial control, significant political shifts, and fluctuating relations with the Tang dynasty.
After the death of Gar Tongtsen in 667 AD, his son Lunqing Ling (Gar Chingtsang Tridro) and his brothers seized control of the Tibetan government. By 670 AD, in response to the Tang dynasty’s military expedition to reinstate the Tuyuhun king, Lunqing Ling mobilized a massive Tibetan army of 200,000 against the Tang forces in southern Qinghai Lake. The conflict, known as the Battle of Dafeichuan, ended in a disastrous defeat for the Tang forces, allowing Tibet to firmly control the Qinghai Lake area and aim for dominance over the Longyou and Hexi Corridor to control the Silk Road for greater economic benefits.
The Tibetan Empire’s Expansion and Internal Conflict
By 676 AD, Manglon Mangtsen passed away, and his posthumous child, Tridu Songtsen, ascended to the throne, with Lunqing Ling continuing as regent. During this period, Tibet faced setbacks in its campaigns in the Western Regions and shifted focus to the southwest, capturing strategic military locations along the Min River.
The prolonged autocracy of the Gar clan led to tensions with other noble families and threatened the consolidation of the king’s power. As Tridu Songtsen grew older, he decided to purge the Gar family.
In 695 AD, Tridu Songtsen, under the pretext of a defeat in the Western Regions, executed Lunqing Ling’s brother, Bolon Zanre. The following year, Lunqing Ling and his brother Zanpo fought against Wang Xiaojie at Suluhanshan (near present-day Taozhou), emerging victorious in the Battle of Suluhanshan, further solidifying the Gar clan’s influence.
By 698 AD, Tridu Songtsen’s suspicions of the Gar family intensified, leading to a campaign against them, resulting in the execution of over 2,000 members and associates of the Gar party. Facing rebellion in Tuyuhun, Lunqing Ling committed suicide, and his brother and son, Lun Gongren, surrendered to the Tang dynasty, who resettled them in Liangzhou’s Hongyuan Valley as a defense against Tibet.
The Decline of the Gar Clan
After the fall of the Gar clan, the Tibetan Empire struggled in several military engagements. Tridu Songtsen’s attempts to quell these issues, including sending Qu Mangbu to defeat Zanpo, ended in failure. In 704 AD, Tridu Songtsen personally led a campaign against Nanzhao but died in the field, succeeded by his young son, Tride Tsugten.
The Tibetan-Tang Dynamics
Relations between the Tibetan Empire and the Tang dynasty oscillated between tension and reconciliation. In 714 AD, negotiations to establish the “He Yuan” as a border failed, leading to renewed conflict. By 730 AD, a treaty signed with the Tang dynasty set “Chiling” as the border, with Tang Suzong agreeing to send 50,000 rolls of silk to Tibet.
An image from 1938-1939 depicts the Enlan Dazhalugong Monument commemorating this agreement.
After Emperor Dezong ascended the Tang throne, he ceased the silk tribute to Tibet, infuriating Tride Tsugten, who dispatched Enlan Dazhalugong with a 200,000-strong army to capture Chang’an in 762 AD, amidst the unrest of the An Lushan Rebellion, and installed a puppet emperor.
These events highlight the complexities of the Tibetan Empire’s political and military engagements, its internal power struggles, and its changing relationship with the Tang dynasty, reflecting the era’s intricate tapestry of alliance, conflict, and ambition.
The Zenith of the Tibetan Empire under Trisong Detsen
During the reign of Trisong Detsen, the Tibetan Empire reached its peak, expanding its territories west to Balur and the Arab regions, east to Sichuan and Long, and south to Nanzhao. Besides the vigorous expansion, Trisong Detsen significantly promoted Buddhism, intertwining it with the existing Bon religion and shaping the unique form of Tibetan Buddhism known today.
The Fusion of Buddhism and Bon Religion
Buddhism was introduced to Tibet during Songtsen Gampo’s era but did not become mainstream until Trisong Detsen’s reign. The period saw the integration of Vajrayana Buddhism from ancient India and Mahayana Buddhism from China with the native Bon religion, leading to the formation of Tibetan Buddhism. This era, known as the “early dissemination” phase, saw Buddhism declared the state religion, emphasizing doctrines like impermanence, karma, reincarnation, and enlightenment, particularly through Tantric practices.
A significant event was the debate at Samye Monastery between 792-794 AD, where the Indian Madhyamaka school’s representative, Kamalashila, triumphed over the Chinese Chan Buddhism advocate, Moheyan, marking a pivotal moment in Tibetan Buddhism’s establishment.
The Long Wars and the Tang-Tibetan Alliance
Image of the Tang-Tibetan alliance stele in Lhasa’s Jokhang Temple Square.
After nearly two centuries of warfare, both the Tibetan Empire and the Tang Dynasty were weary. In 821-822 AD, they convened in Chang’an and Lhasa, establishing a “nephew-uncle” relationship in the “Changqing Alliance.” This treaty, recorded on three steles with one in front of Jokhang Temple, formally defined their borders, pledging mutual respect and non-aggression, solidifying peace after years of conflict.
The Decline of Tibetan Buddhism and the Rise of Bon
Despite the flourishing of Buddhism, the struggle between the Bon and Buddhist religions persisted, with Bon regaining prominence towards the end of the Tibetan Empire. In 841 AD, anti-Buddhist minister assassinated Trisong Detsen’s successor, and Langdarma, representing anti-Buddhist forces, ascended the throne. Langdarma’s vehement anti-Buddhist policies, including the persecution of monks and destruction of Buddhist texts and icons, marked a period known as “Langdarma’s Persecution of Buddhism.”
The assassination of Langdarma by a Buddhist monk in 843 AD and subsequent conflicts among his heirs led to the “Battle of Woeyo.” By 869 AD, a significant rebellion against the Tibetan nobility occurred, and by 877 AD, the uprising forces desecrated royal tombs and executed the royal family, leading to the collapse of the Tibetan Empire. This tumultuous end heralded the fragmentation of Tibet into principalities, marking the end of over two centuries of unified Tibetan rule and the onset of a divided era.
