Within the rich tapestry of narratives surrounding various ethnic histories, legends and myths play a pivotal role. These stories, while not always historically accurate, often cloak kernels of truth beneath layers of mystique. A prime example is the Tibetan legend of the “Tsenpo of the Sky,” a tale deeply ingrained in the collective memory of the Tibetan people, tracing the roots of their civilization to this mythical era. Discovered within the ancient Tibetan manuscripts of the Dunhuang caves, these documents from the 7th to 9th centuries offer a rare glimpse into Tibet’s religious, cultural, and political landscape before the 9th century. Regarded as a crucial piece in deciphering Tibet’s prehistoric era, these texts introduce the “Tsenpo of the Sky” as the progenitors of the Tibetan governance system.
Divine Descent and Earthly Rule
According to manuscript P.T.1286, celestial beings descended from the heavens, among them the six sons of the Heavenly Father and Chitön Zhi, totaling seven divine entities. Chitön Zhi’s offspring, Nyatri Tsenpo, assumed the mantle of earth’s ruler, particularly over the Yarlung region. These divine kings were seen ascending back to the heavens, leaving behind a legacy that would deeply influence Tibetan folklore and historical texts.
The Enduring Legacy and Its Influence
This legend has profoundly impacted Tibetan folk narratives, with historical documents such as the “Red Annals” and the “Records of Tibetan Kings” referencing the heavenly tombs of the “Tsenpo of the Sky.” The narrative takes a pivotal turn with the eighth Tsenpo, Trigum Tsenpo, whose death marked a departure from celestial burials, leading to the first earthly tomb due to his severed connection to the heavens.
Reinterpreting the Legend
The tale of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” raises intriguing questions about early Tibetan burial practices, suggesting a tradition of high-altitude burials influenced by Bon religion’s reverence for the high and sacred. However, linking these practices to the broader spectrum of Tibetan funerary customs reveals complexities in understanding the transition from celestial to earthly burials.
The interpretation of burials at higher altitudes, largely influenced by the “Shuowen Jiezi” dictionary’s definitions of “heaven” as both “high” and “beginning,” suggests an evolution in burial practices reflecting societal changes driven by socio-economic developments. This broader perspective encourages a deeper investigation into the origins and transformations of Tibetan burial customs, beyond the material aspects to exploring the symbolic meanings and original beliefs reflected in these practices.
Looking Forward: A Call for Deeper Investigation
As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” and the evolution of Tibetan burial practices, the integration of recent archaeological findings and ethnographic research offers new avenues to understand the intertwining of history, religion, and cultural identity in Tibet. This re-examination not only sheds light on the physical aspects of ancient funerary customs but also opens a window into the spiritual beliefs and societal values that have shaped the Tibetan way of life throughout the ages.
The Tsenpo of the Sky: Linking “Cha” and “Mu”
Legends, while not direct historical accounts, serve as a cryptic expression of history, offering insights into past customs and beliefs. Thus, deciphering the funerary customs reflected in the legend of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” requires an understanding beyond the literal text, connecting the origins and destinations of the Tsenpo to unveil the metaphorical “heaven.” Research into the religious beliefs of Southwest ethnic groups reveals a tradition of migration, influencing the concept of soul dispatching—viewing the soul’s final resting place as the ancestral homeland, merging the concepts of the netherworld and the physical world.
Inspired by this notion, the descent and return of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” to and from “heaven” might correlate with a real geographical location, tracing the lineage of these kings. The “Gongbu Demu Carved Stone,” a popular document from the Tubo period, provides a clue, stating that Nyatri Tsenpo descended from the divine mountain Gongto to become the ruler of humans. The intertwining of mountain and sky worship in Bon religion, which includes the political element of divine right to rule, hints at the geographical origin of Nyatri Tsenpo being “Cha.”
The “Origin of Bon Religion” further elaborates that the celestial king Yalazhu from “Cha” and a woman from “Mu,” Sekama, gave birth to six sons. In the Yarlung era, Tibetans, originally without surnames, began adopting their territorial names as surnames to distinguish their noble heritage, indicating that the first Tsenpo, Nyatri Tsenpo, was indeed a son of the “Cha” clan. The “Five Lost Teachings” reveal that due to a familial dispute, Nyatri Tsenpo’s father was expelled to the “Mu” clan, where he married and fathered the prince. Shockingly, historical documents from Dunhuang corroborate an ancient alliance between the “Cha” and “Mu” clans, with envoys from “Cha” visiting “Mu.”
Professor Shi Shuo’s analysis of the myth of the monkey and the demoness giving birth to the Tibetan race is not merely a legend but a reflection of the actual origin of Tibetans, stemming from an ancient alliance between the “Cha” clan of central Tibet and the “Mu” clan of the Trans-Himalayan region. The creation of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” can be traced back to this primordial union, with Nyatri Tsenpo born in his maternal uncle’s land, indicating his origins in the “Mu” region of the eastern Tibetan canyons.
French Tibetologist Rolf Stein noted that many Tibetan folktales emphasize the Han-Tibetan border region rather than central Tibet, highlighting the significant influence of neighboring tribes on the formation and cultural development of the Tibetan nation. These legends serve as crucial means for ethnic groups to consolidate kinship memories and maintain national identity. Thus, the profound historical memory within Tibetan culture reveals the significant impact of the “Mu” region of the Trans-Himalayas on the “Cha” region of central Tibet, directing our focus to the Trans-Himalayan area to decipher the legend of the “Tsenpo of the Sky.”
Dissection of the Body: Funeral Customs from “Mu”
The manuscript P.T.1286 leaves only a vague narrative concerning funeral customs of the time, with scant clues about the burial practices of that era. However, its successor, P.T.1287, provides a detailed account of the corpse handling following the death of the eighth Tsenpo, Trigum Tsenpo. This analysis reveals some intriguing insights:
The remains were placed inside a copper basket with a lid, capable of being opened, and cast into the middle of the Tsangpo River. The body then flowed to the end of the river, near the area of Serkhang, close to Lhodak White Derenmo… Later, the prince’s mother, who was pregnant with a posthumous child named Alekje, grew up to inquire about his kin and went to meet Prince Xa Xia and Hongqi, along with Fenderenmo in the Kham region, to request the return of the Tsenpo’s body. He was told that he needed to find “one whose eyes are like bird’s eyes, with lower eyelids that open upwards.” The prince then encountered a woman from the Bird Family, tending to her fields, carrying a child on her back matching the description. Upon asking to purchase the child, the mother replied, “I desire nothing but one wish: whenever the Tsenpo and his consort pass away, their bodies should be dismembered, their flesh crushed, and not allowed to remain in the human realm but instead be consumed.” The prince agreed, took a solemn oath, and took the Bird Family woman with him. Back at Derenmo’s home, they redeemed the Tsenpo’s body. Nyechi and the prince retrieved the Tsenpo’s remains and constructed a tomb at Jangdrolab.
Four points from this document require attention:
- Evidence of Body Movement: The document suggests the body was moved, aligning with scholars’ claims of Tsenpo’s remains being transported to remote or treacherous locations. The true destination, hinted at being the “river’s end,” aligns with historical migration patterns along rivers, implying a southward movement towards the “Mu” region across the Trans-Himalayas.
- Second Burial: Initially hidden, the body was later reclaimed for burial by the prince, indicating a practice of secondary burial, supported by other historical texts and rituals performed years after death.
- Body Dissection: The prince promised to dismember and crush the Tsenpo’s body before burial. This unique method of corpse handling, found in other historical records, suggests a ritualistic element to the funerary practices during Trigum Tsenpo’s era, pointing to the dissection of bodies in the “Mu” region as an early practice.
- Matrilineal Society Traits: The narrative of a woman from the Bird Family hiding the body suggests that dismemberment may have been a predominant practice in the matrilineal societies of the Trans-Himalayan region. This aligns with descriptions of the Dongnu Kingdom, a matrilineal society neighboring the Tibetan heartland, where similar funeral practices were observed.
This analysis opens a window into the complex funeral customs of early Tibet and its neighboring regions, revealing a blend of ritualistic dismemberment, matrilineal societal traits, and the deep cultural interconnections across the Himalayas.
Scattered Bone Burials: Prehistoric Elite Funeral Customs in Tibet
The discussion on the practice of “dismembering bodies” in Tibetan funerary customs primarily draws from literary analysis. However, does archaeological evidence support this burial practice? Archaeological findings in Tibet and the Trans-Himalayan region reveal that the oldest burial custom is stone coffin burial, stretching from the Neolithic Age to the late Han Dynasty. Stone coffins, characterized by rectangular chambers with no decorations at the base and surrounded by uneven stones with large stone slabs covering the top, house the deceased along with various burial goods. Luo Kaiyu’s systematic study on the stone coffin burials in Eastern Tibet and the Trans-Himalayan region suggests a tight economic and cultural connection across this area in ancient times, identifying it as part of a broader cultural system.
Particularly, the distribution of stone coffin burials in Tibet, concentrated around Chamdo, Nyingchi, Shannan, and Shigatse, aligns with the ancient route from the Sichuan Plateau across the Jinsha River to Lhasa. This route mirrors descriptions in ancient Tibetan manuscripts about the pathway from “Cha” to “Mu.” Archaeologist Huo Wei has identified prehistoric stone coffin burials showing signs of scattered bones, possibly indicating cultural interactions in burial customs across the Trans-Himalayan region. These burials exhibit signs of disturbance, with skeletons partially intact or entirely disordered, suggesting a practice of secondary burial.
In Chamdo and Angren, some stone coffin group burials have been found with human skulls in the southwest corner, showing marks of “circumferential skull sawing,” indicating a deliberate modification of the remains. Similar findings in Lhasa’s northern suburb at the Qugong site reveal incomplete skeletal remains, supporting the notion of human-induced disturbance or secondary burial. The burial practices seem to continue into later periods, with late-stage excavations revealing similarly disordered skeletal remains, suggesting a continuation of the dismemberment practice.
The evidence of “secondarily disturbed burials” in the stone coffins of Eastern Tibet, though not widespread, highlights a significant practice among the elite. The burial goods found in these tombs, including stone tools, pottery, complete horse and animal bones, human skulls, and ritualistic stone platforms and ash pits, suggest that dismembering the body was a funeral custom prevalent among the upper class. This practice is confirmed by historical records, such as the “New Tang Book,” which details the treatment of “noble” bodies in the Dongnu Kingdom, and other texts describing the funerary customs of high-status individuals in regions believed to be the origins of the Bon religion.
These findings reveal a link between the elite status of the deceased and the practice of dismembering bodies for burial. The “Tsenpo of the Sky,” being kings, undoubtedly belonged to the highest echelon of society, underscoring the prestigious nature of their funeral customs.
Souls Returning to the Trans-Himalayas: The Primitive Beliefs Reflected in Chaotic Burial Practices
What do early practices of dismemberment burial reveal about the beliefs of the people? The legend of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” descending from and returning to the heavens is undoubtedly linked to Bon religion’s worship of celestial beings. Following their death, rituals were performed according to Bon teachings to ensure the Tsenpo’s souls ascended to the heavens. The question arises, what does “heaven” signify in this context? A clue from the ancient Tibetan manuscript PT126II suggests that “heaven” might correspond to a specific geographical location, indicating that the religious faith in “Mu” centered around the worship of sky deities, a belief shared by “Cha” which considered “Mu” as the abode of celestial beings. This established a correlation between “Mu” and “heaven” through religious faith, reflected in linguistics where “Mu” is a polysemous term in ancient Tibetan and modern languages of the Tibeto-Burman family, denoting “heaven,” “people,” and “tribe.”
Document P.T.1287 explicitly mentions the condition for reclaiming the father’s body was to “dissect and crush the corpse,” a practice that resulted in the appearance of a golden rope in the sky, a mythical variation of the “heavenly rope.” This confirms that, in the eyes of those who worshipped celestial beings, dismembering the body was a prerequisite for the soul’s return to the sky. Thus, the primary goal of early dual burial customs involving body dissection wasn’t merely for the body to disappear quickly but to expedite the separation of flesh and bone for a proper burial, rooted in the belief that “the soul resides in the bones.”
The choice of stone coffin burial reflects their living conditions, mirroring descriptions of dwelling in stone houses, hence the tradition of constructing stone cairns for the dead. For “Cha,” allied through marriage with “Mu,” the land of celestial beings also represented the ancestral spirit land. This is understandable as the “Tsenpo of the Sky” originated from “Mu” (“heaven”), with historical records of “Cha” seeking a ruler from “Mu.” Therefore, transporting the Tsenpo’s remains to “Mu” for funeral rites was essentially a soul dispatching ritual. This practice persists among many ethnic groups in the Southwest, especially among the Tibeto-Burman peoples of the Trans-Himalayas, with rituals to send the soul back to the ancestral homeland. Archaeological discoveries confirm that stone coffin burials were often located on higher slopes along riverbanks, facing east towards “Mu,” reflecting a blend of sacred conceptual space with real geographical locations.
This understanding elucidates why contemporary Tibetan burial practices often orient the deceased facing east, aligning with ancient beliefs in the direction of “heaven” and the ancestral land. This tradition, while influenced by Tibetan Buddhism, maintains the ancient custom of eastward burial, symbolizing a connection to the sun’s rise, dispelling darkness, and facilitating a quicker reincarnation.
The Soul’s Return to the Trans-Himalayas: Reflections of Primitive Beliefs in Scattered Bone Burials
What does the early practice of “limb cutting burial” reveal about the beliefs of the people? The legend of the “Tsenpo of the Sky” descending from and returning to the heavens is undoubtedly linked to Bon religion’s celestial worship. Following their deaths, the seven kings were ritually sent to the heavens according to Bon teachings. The question arises, what does “heaven” symbolize in this context? Manuscript PT126II provides a clue, mentioning that when the emissary from “Cha” reached “Mu,” the latter professed a reverence for joyous celestial deities, indicating a core of sky worship in “Mu’s” religious practices. This belief is echoed in Tang Dynasty texts, noting ritual gatherings every three years among the Qiang people of the eastern Trans-Himalayan region to sacrifice cattle and sheep to the heavens.
The dialogue between “Cha” and “Mu” establishes “Mu” as a sacred space, a belief still reflected in linguistic studies today, showing “Mu” (dmu, rmu, smu) as a term denoting “heaven,” “human,” and “clan” among various Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups. This linguistic evidence supports the notion that “Mu” represented a divine geography, equating the land with heaven through religious beliefs.
The detailed process of redeeming the Tsenpo’s body in PT1287, involving the dismemberment and crushing of the corpse, aligns with mythological elements such as the appearance of a golden rope from the heavens. This suggests that body dissection was seen as a necessary step for the soul’s ascent, reflecting a secondary burial practice not aimed at quick disposal of the body but ensuring separation of flesh and bone, believed to house the soul.
This analysis indicates that the scattered bone burial, practiced during the “Tsenpo of the Sky” era, was a reflection of combining celestial and ancestral (matrilineal) worship in primitive Tibetan beliefs. This shift in funerary customs during the eighth Tsenpo, Trigum Tsenpo’s era, from ritual dismemberment to the construction of Tibet’s first tomb, suggests a departure from non-tumulus burials, supported by archaeological evidence indicating the emergence of burial mounds from the 1st to 6th centuries AD.
Understanding this transition also sheds light on the cultural and societal evolution from matrilineal to patrilineal societies, marking a significant shift in Tibetan ancestral worship. The names of the “Tsenpo of the Sky,” bearing no paternal links but maternal ones, reflect this matrilineal influence, highlighting a profound connection to ancestral and celestial realms. This cultural shift, coupled with the rise of agriculture and male-dominated economic activities, propelled changes in social structures and funerary customs, marking the dawn of patrilineal ancestor worship in Tibet.
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